Economic research and trade policy analysis
Avant-Propos de la directrice générale de L’OMC
L’ordre économique international d’après 1945 reposait sur l’idée que l’interdépendance entre les nations au moyen d’un renforcement des liens commerciaux et économiques favoriserait la paix et la prospérité de tous. Pendant la majeure partie de ces 75 dernières années, cette idée a guidé les responsables politiques et a contribué à asseoir les bases d’une période sans précédent de croissance, d’amélioration des niveaux de vie et de réduction de la pauvreté. Cette vision est aujourd’hui en péril, tout comme l’est l’avenir d’une économie mondiale ouverte et prévisible.
Nota general y abreviaturas
Las estadísticas relativas a los aranceles aplicados y las importaciones se calculan utilizando datos basados en la nomenclatura del SA adoptada por el país para el año de referencia. Para las estadísticas relativas a los aranceles consolidados, los cálculos se basan en la Lista de concesiones aprobada del Miembro de la OMC. En las anteriores ediciones de la publicación Perfiles arancelarios en el mundo, cada Lista se basaba en la versión del SA que el Miembro utilizaba en el momento de su adhesión a la OMC. A partir de la edición de 2010, las estadísticas de los aranceles consolidados se basan en la lista de concesiones aprobada de cada Miembro conforme a la versión más reciente del SA. Esto puede tener algunas consecuencias en la serie histórica de diversos indicadores de aranceles consolidados que se ven afectados por el uso de una nomenclatura diferente. Aunque los compromisos del Miembro no hayan cambiado como resultado de la transposición, algunas estadísticas agregadas pueden verse afectadas como consecuencia del cambio a otra versión del SA.
La reglobalización para reducir la pobreza y la desigualdad
En este capítulo se analizan los posibles efectos negativos de la fragmentación en el crecimiento, la pobreza y la desigualdad, y la forma en que la reglobalización puede ayudar a garantizar que los beneficios del comercio se distribuyan más ampliamente, tanto entre las economías como dentro de ellas. La apertura del comercio de productos agropecuarios y servicios y la elaboración de nuevas normas sobre el comercio electrónico podrían impulsar el crecimiento, reducir la pobreza y hacer que la economía mundial sea más inclusiva. La OMC puede contribuir a facilitar un sistema mundial de comercio más inclusivo actualizando las normas comerciales a nivel multilateral y colaborando con otras organizaciones internacionales para garantizar que el comercio mundial redunde en beneficio de más personas.
Conclusion
Cela fait désormais près de 70 ans que les économies du monde entier ouvrent leurs marchés les unes aux autres, reconnaissant que l’interdépendance et la coopération engendrent une prospérité partagée. Cependant, de graves difficultés, comme la crise financière de 2008-2009, la pandémie de COVID-19 et la guerre en Ukraine, menacent maintenant d’ébranler cette vision et font ressortir un certain nombre de risques inhérents à un contexte mondialisé. Par conséquent, certains ont commencé à remettre en cause les avantages de la mondialisation. La suite logique de cette façon de penser est un monde plus fragmenté et moins intégré. Heureusement, nous n’en sommes pas encore là. Il est encore temps d’agir ; cependant, comme le montre ce rapport, l’évolution du discours sur la mondialisation s’est déjà traduite par une exacerbation des tensions et par les premiers signes d’une fragmentation géoéconomique du commerce.
La reconfiguración del comercial mundial
En este capítulo se muestra que, a pesar de las dificultades en el panorama mundial de las políticas comerciales, las corrientes comerciales mundiales han sido resilientes y siguen evolucionando en una dirección más sostenible e inclusiva. El discurso en torno a los beneficios de la globalización ha adquirido un tono más escéptico en el último decenio. Ese discurso ha empezado a reflejarse en el comercio mundial con la aparición de las primeras fracturas en el sistema motivadas por las políticas. Sin embargo, la revolución digital sigue fomentando la integración económica al facilitar el comercio de mercancías y, sobre todo, de servicios. El comercio todavía encierra un gran potencial para seguir contribuyendo al crecimiento de la economía mundial y aportar más beneficios a las economías en desarrollo a través de la expansión de las cadenas de valor mundiales. Ahora bien, para poder acceder al potencial aún sin explotar de las nuevas corrientes comerciales, las políticas deben mantener su apertura al exterior.
Introduction
Les idées qui ont façonné le monde globalisé d’aujourd’hui étaient une réponse au désastre du monde déglobalisé de la première moitié du XXe siècle. Ayant vu de quelle manière une économie mondiale fermée et divisée avait favorisé une dépression économique, des conflits et, en fin de compte, la Seconde Guerre mondiale, les architectes de l’après-guerre ont décidé de construire à la place une économie mondiale ouverte et intégrée. La libéralisation du commerce engendrerait une croissance et à un développement partagés. Du fait de l’interdépendance économique, tous les pays auraient intérêt à ce que les autres pays prospèrent. Les règles et les institutions internationales favoriseraient la stabilité, la confiance et la collaboration. L’antidote à un nationalisme économique à somme nulle était une coopération économique mondiale à somme positive.
Acerca de esta publicación
Perfiles arancelarios en el mundo es una publicación conjunta de la OMC, el ITC y la UNCTAD que se ocupa del acceso a los mercados para las mercancías. En la publicación, de carácter anual, se ofrece información completa sobre las medidas arancelarias y no arancelarias impuestas por más de 170 países y territorios aduaneros, incluidos algunos que no forman parte de la OMC, si las bases de datos de la OMC, el ITC o la UNCTAD contienen información sobre los aranceles aplicados por ellos en 2022 ó 2021.
Introducción
Perfiles arancelarios en el mundo es una publicación conjunta de la OMC, el ITC y la UNCTAD dedicada al acceso a los mercados para las mercancías.
Agradecimientos
Queremos dar las gracias a todas las instituciones que han suministrado datos, incluidas las notificaciones que figuran en el tema especial, sobre todo a las administraciones nacionales o las delegaciones ante la OMC que han facilitado toda esta información.
¿Cuál es el papel de la OMC?
La OMC tiene un papel importante que desempeñar en la gobernanza de la IA.
Resumen
El efecto generalizado y transformador que la inteligencia artificial (IA) está teniendo actualmente en la sociedad es perceptible en todos los ámbitos, desde el trabajo, la producción y el comercio hasta el arte y las actividades de ocio.
Résumé analytique
L’incidence généralisée et l’effet transformateur que l’intelligence artificielle (IA) a actuellement sur la société se font sentir dans tous les domaines, allant du travail, de la production et du commerce à la santé, aux arts et aux activités de loisirs.
Trade and income convergence
The past quarter of a century has witnessed an unprecedented level of income convergence, accompanied by the integration of many developing economies into global markets. Despite this, some economies have been left behind. This chapter discusses how the participation of developing economies in global trade and investment flows can accelerate structural transformation and enhance productivity growth, thereby helping lowand middle-income economies to achieve the economic growth that ensures convergence with high-income economies. The chapter also examines why some economies have taken little advantage of globalization, and focuses on barriers to maximizing the gains from trade participation, such as trade costs and commodity dependence. Finally, the chapter discusses how recent trends in the global economy are shaping future opportunities and challenges for developing economies to leverage trade and foreign direct investment for economic growth, and which policies can help to achieve convergence in the upcoming decade.
Note
WTO members are frequently referred to as “countries”, although some members are not countries in the usual sense of the word but are officially “customs territories”.
Conclusions
Over the past 30 years, the world has witnessed a period of unprecedented income convergence, accompanied by a steep reduction in poverty, but inequality remains high.
Inclusive trade and international cooperation
This chapter discusses how the multilateral trading system has helped some economies to take advantage of trade to further their development, but has not succeeded in helping others to harness trade for growth and considers what could be done to ensure that the WTO leaves no economy behind. It also examines the effect of the WTO on how the benefits of trade are shared out within economies, and discusses how the WTO and trade can be made more inclusive for people and firms. Finally, the chapter outlines the areas in which work at the WTO could be coordinated with work at other international organizations to help make trade more inclusive, such as by enhancing infrastructure and digital connectivity to bridge the digital gap or by ensuring coherence between trade and environmental policies.
Executive summary
Never before have the living conditions and prospects of so many people changed so dramatically in the space of a few decades.
Trade and inclusiveness within economies
Trade has raised aggregate welfare and reduced poverty without necessarily raising inequality in many economies, but the impact of trade is more complex for individuals. People may benefit from cheaper prices, larger variety and export opportunities, but they may also face increased competition and may, therefore, either gain or lose from trade. This chapter reviews why, although most people gain from trade, some suffer losses. These losses can be aggravated by distortions and barriers, such as mobility costs or monopolies, that tend to impact more vulnerable groups disproportionately, and may prevent them from adjusting to import competition and accessing export opportunities. The chapter also examines why using restrictive trade policy to redistribute gains from trade is often unsuccessful and can have unintended consequences, such as retaliation by trade partners. In contrast, domestic policies, such as education and social protection, are more effective in addressing inequality. Their importance is likely to grow as the digital revolution, climate change and geopolitics continue to shape the distributional impacts of trade.
Foreword by the WTO Director-General
The mission of the World Trade Organization, as set out in the preamble to its founding Marrakesh Agreement, is to use trade as a means to raise living standards, create jobs and promote sustainable development. As we mark the WTO’s 30th anniversary, it is clear that members have used the open and predictable global economy anchored in WTO rules and norms to accelerate growth and development, with enormous positive impacts for human well-being. At the same time, many people and places have not shared adequately in these gains.
Disclaimer
The World Trade Report has been prepared under the responsibility of the WTO Secretariat. It does not necessarily reflect the positions or opinions of WTO members and it is without prejudice to their rights and obligations under the WTO agreements.
Introduction
Global trade is often accused of creating a more unequal world, but in fact the opposite is happening. Billions of people in developing economies are catching up to the more advanced economies, as millions of people in the advanced economies continue to move ahead. This global economic convergence is only possible because the world has become more open and integrated – expanding access to new markets, new technologies and new models for achieving rapid, sustained and inclusive growth.
Acknowledgements
The World Trade Report 2025 was prepared under the general responsibility and guidance of Johanna Hill, WTO Deputy Director-General, and Ralph Ossa, Chief Economist and Director of the Economic Research and Statistics Division. Director-General Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala, Senior Advisor to the Director-General Uyama Tomochika, and Trineesh Biswas from the Office of the Director-General provided valuable advice and guidance.
Introduction
The development and deployment of artificial intelligence (AI) have accelerated in the last few years, and its applications hold the potential to revolutionize human society and economic activities.
Foreword by the WTO Director-General
Rapid advances in artificial intelligence (AI) are transforming the world economy, reshaping how work is defined, how value is created, and how opportunities are distributed across societies. Given these far-reaching effects, AI is also transforming world trade.
How domestic policies can shape the trade and AI relationship to favour inclusive economic growth
Trade policies are a necessary part of any relationship between trade and AI that results in inclusive economic growth.
Disclaimer
We also thank the following individuals from outside the WTO Secretariat for their useful comments during the initial drafting stage of the report: Ashutosh Chadha (Microsoft), Marcio Cruz (International Finance Corporation), Edelbert Häfele and Judit Inacsovszky (PATEV Associates GmbH), James Howe (International Trade Centre), Carsten Fink (World Intellectual Property Organization), Greg LaRocca and Mary Thornton (Semiconductor Industry Association), Kristina McElheran, Ruiqi Sun and Daniel Trefler (University of Toronto), Ana Carolina da Motta (Amazon Web Services), Hildegunn Kyvik Nordås (Council on Economic Policies and Örebro University), Ana Maria Santacreu (Federal Reserve Bank of Saint Louis), Ina Simonovska (University of California, Davis), Toh Si Tong (Infocomm Media Development Authority, Singapore) and Yoto V. Yotov (Drexel University).
AI, trade and inclusive growth: opportunities and challenges
This chapter provides a detailed economic analysis of the transformative potential of AI, focusing on its impact on trade and inclusive growth.
Executive summary
Artificial intelligence (AI) is beginning to reshape the global economy.
International cooperation to make trade and AI work for all
As trade shapes the development and deployment of AI, and AI could, in turn, reshape global trade, stronger international trade cooperation, both at the WTO and with other international organizations, is important to ensure that AI is beneficial and that the benefits of AI are more widely shared.
Remerciements
Les auteurs tiennent à remercier tous ceux qui ont communiqué des données y compris les notifications figurant dans le sujet spécial, principalement les administrations des pays/territoires et les délégations auprès de l'OMC. Dans certains cas, les données ont été mises à disposition sur les sites Web des pays/territoires ou par l'intermédiaire d'organisations régionales. Vu le grand nombre de données statistiques et de métadonnées qu'il fallait traiter, et comme celles-ci n'étaient pas disponibles au sein d'une seule organisation, cette publication n'a été possible que grâce aux efforts conjoints de l'OMC, de l'ITC et de la CNUCED. Les trois organisations possèdent chacune une expérience reconnue et des avantages comparatifs dans le domaine de l'analyse tarifaire.
Acknowledgements
This second edition of the Handbook on Measuring Digital Trade is the outcome of a collaborative effort by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) and the World Trade Organization (WTO), and it has greatly benefitted from the contribution of many experts along the way.
Case studies
Several countries have started to apply the core concepts presented in this Handbook to derive measures of digital trade. The detailed case studies put forward in this chapter, contributed by China, Jamaica, Spain, and Türkiye, provide compilers with a range of examples and practical applications to start measuring digital trade.
The conceptual framework for measuring digital trade
Drawing on prior measurement initiatives and focusing on policy needs, this chapter defines digital trade as “all international trade that is digitally ordered and/or digitally delivered”. It sets out a conceptual framework that identifies digital trade transactions within the existing measurement frameworks for international trade, specifying how digital trade transactions are defined, what types of products are included and who are the actors involved in digital trade.
Executive summary
Digital technologies are transforming virtually every aspect of the economy, and international trade is no exception. Businesses and households make increasing use of digital ordering. Many services that traditionally required proximity between producers and consumers are now traded at a distance. Online platforms are playing an increasingly important role in matching supply with demand and facilitating economic transactions.
Digitally delivered trade
This Handbook defines digitally delivered trade as “all international trade transactions that are delivered remotely over computer networks”. This chapter identifies data sources that can be used to collect information on digitally delivered trade, with the collection of data through business surveys being especially recommended.
Foreword
Digital technologies have made it increasingly feasible for buyers and sellers to place and receive orders on a global scale. They also enable the instantaneous remote delivery of services directly into businesses and homes, including internationally.
Agradecimientos
Queremos dar las gracias a todas las instituciones que han suministrado datos, incluidas las notificaciones que figuran en el tema especial, sobre todo a las administraciones nacionales o las delegaciones ante la OMC que han facilitado toda esta información. En algunos casos, los datos se han facilitado en sitios web nacionales o a través de organizaciones regionales. Dada la enorme cantidad de datos y metadatos estadísticos que ha sido necesario procesar, y debido a que esa información no se encuentra en una única organización, la presente publicación solo ha sido posible como esfuerzo conjunto de la OMC, el ITC y la UNCTAD. Cada una de estas tres organizaciones posee una reconocida experiencia en actividades de análisis arancelario y una destacada pericia en la materia.
Digitally ordered trade
This Handbook defines digitally ordered trade as the “international sale or purchase of a good or service, conducted over computer networks by methods specifically designed for the purpose of receiving or placing orders”. This chapter describes how existing enterprise and household surveys targeting e-commerce provide a basis for measuring digitally ordered trade. It highlights the significant challenges that survey respondents, in particular households, can face when identifying and reporting international transactions, especially when these pass through digital intermediation platforms.
Introduction
Why is it important to measure digital trade? This chapter outlines the multifaceted impact of digitalization on international trade and examines which policy areas require consistent, comprehensive and feasible measurement approaches.
Digital intermediation platforms (DIPs)
This Handbook includes this separate chapter on digital intermediation platforms (DIPs) because of their importance in facilitating digital trade, the scope they offer for targeted measurement, and their particular compilation challenges. This chapter describes the accounting principles for recording transactions facilitated by DIPs and provides examples of existing initiatives, surveys and big data sources used to measure DIP transactions.