Economic research and trade policy analysis
Agradecimientos
El Informe sobre el Comercio Mundial ha sido redactado bajo la supervisión general de Patrick Low, Director de la División de Estudios Económicos y Estadística. Los autores principales del Informe son Bijit Bora, K. Michael Finger, Marion Jansen, Alexander Keck, Patrick Low, Hildegunn Nordas, Roberta Piermartini y Robert Teh. Las estadísticas comerciales y la información arancelaria fueron facilitadas por el grupo de estadística de la División de Estudios Económicos y Estadística, bajo la coordinación de Guy Karsenty, Julia de Verteuil, Andreas Maurer y Jürgen Richtering.
The evolution of the GATT/WTO Accession Protocol: Legal tightening and domestic ratification
Where are the legal roots of WTO Accession Protocols? How much was carried over from the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade standard and practice? What customary practice governs the preparation and approval of accession decisions and protocols? What is the current substantive standard and basic architecture of Accession Protocols? Are there unique provisions in Accession Protocols that have emerged in twenty years of WTO accession history? To what extent do Accession Protocols come into play in the context of WTO dispute settlement? By comparing the empirical data contained in the WTO Accession Protocols with preceding GATT Accession Protocols, this chapter offers waterfront coverage of WTO Accession Protocols from the GATT baseline. The chapter shows that, although rooted in its GATT predecessor base, and remarkably consistent over time, some unique provisions have been incorporated into the architecture of the WTO Accession Protocols since 1995. Because Accession Protocols become integral parts of WTO Agreement after they come into force, the chapter argues that the specific ‘terms and conditions of accession’ in WTO Accession Protocols have had a direct and salutary impact on the entirety of the WTO Agreement through its tightened safeguard and upgrade. The chapter concludes by arguing that the evidence suggests that the WTO Agreement has been expanded by the absorption of the Accession Protocols over the course of the last twenty years, and that the effect on the WTO Agreement has been significant, rather than marginal.
Trade Multilateralism – Enhancing Flexibility, Preserving the Momentum
The book you are about to close picked up on the evolving discussion on accessions and trade multilateralism. The first book on the subject, WTO Accessions and Trade Multilateralism: Case Studies and Lessons from the WTO at Twenty, looked back. It took stock of two decades of accessions to the WTO, their welfare and development outcomes, the resulting improvements to market access, and their contribution to domestic reforms and to the rules-based multilateral trading system. It shone a powerful light on the GATT/WTO accession procedure – a process hitherto viewed as lacking transparency and complicated by its esoteric vocabulary and apparent detachment from the day-to-day conduct of trade.
Las subvenciones y la omc
En una parte anterior del Informe hemos examinado los argumentos económicos a favor y en contra de distintos tipos de subvenciones. El análisis económico nos indica que a veces las subvenciones permiten subsanar eficientemente diversos tipos de deficiencias del mercado. También nos indica que las subvenciones pueden distorsionar las corrientes comerciales si otorgan una ventaja competitiva artificial a los exportadores o a las ramas de producción que compiten con las importaciones. Que una subvención se considere como una intervención deseable para corregir una deficiencia del mercado o como una distorsión del comercio no deseable a veces depende de quién emite el juicio. Sin embargo, el análisis económico debería poder ayudar a determinar la conveniencia de una intervención desde la perspectiva de bienestar social y a evaluar las ventajas de otras formas de intervención. No obstante, los gobiernos pueden conceder ciertos tipos de subvenciones que guardan escasa relación con consideraciones de eficiencia, y en esos casos el análisis económico basado en un simple análisis del bienestar social resulta de poca utilidad. Además, en estos casos, es probable que el análisis sea más útil para asegurar que quienes adoptan políticas conozcan los costos que conlleva perseguir determinados objetivos, y los costos de otras formas menos costosas de alcanzarlos. También sabemos que las decisiones sobre lo que se va a subvencionar, en qué cuantía y por cuánto tiempo entrañan complejos aspectos técnicos respecto de los cuales es frecuente que los gobiernos no tengan información suficiente.
El programa de doha para el desarrollo
Un objetivo fundamental de la OMC es promover el desarrollo económico mediante una participación efectiva en el comercio mundial. En lo que respecta a la cuestión de cómo pueden los países en desarrollo derivar mayores beneficios de su participación en el sistema de comercio, tienen pertinencia tres aspectos de la estructura y las normas de la OMC. En primer lugar, las normas propiamente dichas, junto con las excepciones e interpretaciones permitidas, constituyen los cimientos del sistema y desempeñan una función clave en la determinación de las condiciones y oportunidades de comercio. En segundo lugar, se plantea la cuestión del alcance del sistema. No hay ningún tema que la OMC haya considerado y luego descartado, de modo que esto se refiere a la inclusión de nuevos asuntos. En tercer lugar, las medidas de protección aplicadas a las exportaciones de un país también contribuyen considerablemente a definir las condiciones y oportunidades de comercio. En síntesis, la índole de las normas de la OMC, el alcance de esas normas y las condiciones del acceso a los mercados son las tres cuestiones principales que determinan la calidad y utilidad de la OMC para sus Miembros. Por lo tanto, no debe sorprender que cada uno de estos tres elementos figure de manera destacada en el Programa de Doha para el Desarrollo.
L’impact du commerce sur les femmes dans leurs différents rôles
Au cours des trois dernières décennies, le monde a connu une intégration croissante. La part du commerce des marchandises dans le produit intérieur brut (PIB) est passée d’environ 43% en 1995 à près de 60% en 2017. Les droits de douane ont progressivement diminué à partir de l’établissement de l’Accord général sur les tarifs douaniers et le commerce (GATT) en 1948, puis des mesures de libéralisation unilatérale et huit cycles de négociations multilatérales ont fortement réduit les droits de douane appliqués par les Membres de l’Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC). Les taux NPF (nation la plus favorisée) appliqués, supérieurs à 10% en 1995, se situaient en 2017 juste au-dessus de 7% (graphique 1.1). D’une manière générale, les pays qui sont ouverts au commerce international enregistrent une plus forte croissance, innovent, augmentent leur productivité et offrent à leur population des revenus plus élevés et des perspectives élargies.
German Employment Legislation and its Impact on the Trade and Labour Market Nexus
Motivated by Germany’s economic weakness and high labour market inflexibility, The Economist (1999) once described the country as “the sick man of the euro”. The public debate surrounding this statement considered Germany as one of the major threats to the euro, due to its persistently high rates of unemployment since the mid-1970s. The rather low levels of job creation were presumed to be caused by labour market institutions, including restrictive employment protection, a high level of union coverage and a generous welfare system. The German Government started to transform the labour market legislation at the beginning of the 21st century, by giving particular enterprises more flexibility in hiring and firing their employees as part of an in-depth labour market reform programme. Other adjustments included lower unemployment benefits and various active labour market policies. Consequently, unemployment rates in Germany were plummeting shortly after the enforcement of the reforms. Today, Germany’s rate of unemployment is at a record low level of 3.4 per cent, which is the second-lowest rate in the European Union (EU). To some extent, this success is an achievement that can be attributed to the rigorous labour market reforms.
The 2014 WTO accession of Yemen: Accession negotiations as an instrument for domestic reform, national security and international cooperation
In 2011, a popular revolution occurred in Yemen, leading to the formation of the government which brought the accession process to its conclusion in 2014, following years of long and complex negotiations. From the beginning, Yemen’s accession process was envisaged not as an end in itself, but as a means to achieve other, more imperative, objectives, including poverty reduction, decreasing levels of chronic unemployment and raising levels of sustained development to meet the needs of a rapidly growing population. This chapter gives an account of the accession process, focusing on the positive effects of Yemen’s accession to the WTO, both as a catalyst for long sought-after domestic reform and as a useful and convenient path to reach higher levels of reform for which the accession process acted as a spur. The aspiration was to create a competitive business environment that would lead to efficient resource allocation and ultimately boost output and productivity as well as increasing the well-being of the populace and reaping the benefits of WTO membership. Joining the WTO does not mark the end of the reform process. There is work post-accession to establish and strengthen different institutions to exercise the benefits of WTO membership for Yemen.
The future of multilateral investment rules in the WTO: Contributions from WTO accession outcomes
Foreign direct investment and trade are increasingly interlinked due to the deepening integration of trade and production networks. Today, there is an ever-increasing percentage of imports in a country’s production. Responding to this increase, some countries have sought to limit the percentage of imports in their production by requiring that foreign investors use locally produced inputs, as an aspect of implementing priorities in development plans and/or strategic industrial policy. These policies and priorities have also been complicated and exacerbated by protectionism, whereby countries discriminate blatantly in order to promote local industries with policies that grant more favours to local producers and/or products and materials. All these practices impact negatively on international trade by distorting the conditions for fair competition. Although different rules have been developed at an international level to streamline these practices, currently there is no single comprehensive framework to govern them at the multilateral level. Despite this, WTO members, through accessions, have negotiated with acceding governments to refine and improve extant investment-related rules in the WTO. This chapter argues that WTO-specific outcomes, as in deposited Accession Protocols, have contributed to improving significantly the predictability of the investment regulatory laws and policies of Article XII members, reinforcing existing investment-related rules on trade in goods and services, and enhancing the business-friendliness of WTO rules and the relationship with the private sector (including through expanded opportunities for investment), by binding, for example, their status quo policies and rules, and accession-specific obligations codified in domestic law and regulation.
Foreword by the WTO Director-General
The COVID-19 pandemic has neatly illustrated the multi-faceted ways in which globalization touches our lives. The deep interconnections of travel, trade and financial flows that characterize our era allowed the novel coronavirus and its associated economic shocks to spread around the world in a matter of weeks. Earlier pandemics took months, even years, to go global.
Prólogo del Director General de la OMC
El comercio y la tecnología están estrechamente relacionados. Desde la invención de la rueda hasta el hallazgo del ferrocarril o la aparición de los contenedores, la tecnología ha desempeñado siempre un papel clave en la configuración del comercio, y este fenómeno se está produciendo hoy a una velocidad sin precedentes. Estamos viviendo una era de cambios tecnológicos desconocidos hasta ahora, y las distintas innovaciones propiciadas por Internet podrían tener importantes repercusiones. La Internet de las cosas, la inteligencia artificial, la impresión 3D y las cadenas de bloques (blockchain), por ejemplo, pueden cambiar en gran medida cómo se comercia, quiénes comercian y qué se comercia.
introduction
Les subventions sont l’un des nombreux instruments de politique assujettis à des règles dans le système commercial multilatéral, mais elles soulèvent des questions plus complexes pour les responsables politiques que beaucoup d’autres instruments soumis aux règles du GATT/de l’OMC. Cela tient en partie à ce qu’elles peuvent être définies de différentes manières. Cela tient aussi à ce qu’elles sont employées pour atteindre des objectifs très divers. Même lorsqu’elles ne visent pas le commerce, elles peuvent influer sur les courants commerciaux. Les types de subventions dont traite le présent rapport sont essentiellement celles qui confèrent un avantage à certains producteurs nationaux et ont de ce fait un effet sur le commerce. La tâche complexe consistant à déterminer quelles sortes de subventions posent des problèmes du point de vue du système commercial et ce qui peut être fait pour y remédier occupe une place importante dans le programme d’activités de l’OMC /du GATT.
Le commerce international des services de transport aérien: Évolution récente et questions de politique
Comme c’est le cas pour d’autres services de transport, la relation entre le transport aérien et le commerce international se situe à deux niveaux. D’une part, le transport aérien est commercialisé en tant que service à part entière. D’autre part, il constitue un service intermédiaire essentiel pour de nombreux autres types d’échanges, qu’il s’agisse de marchandises ou de services (par exemple le tourisme). De nombreuses études ont fait ressortir l’importance d’une infrastructure de transport aérien fiable, efficace et efficiente, notamment dans les pays en développement, pour assurer la matérialisation des avantages du commerce (OMC, 2004). Ces études ont également souligné la contribution importante de l’aviation civile internationale au processus de développement et le rôle qu’elle joue dans les décisions commerciales et touristiques d’un grand nombre de personnes. Ce rôle est appelé à se développer avec l’innovation technologique, la déréglementation et l’élargissement de l’accès aux marchés pour les entreprises étrangères - autant de facteurs qui rendent le transport aérien plus accessible à une clientèle plus large dans un plus grand nombre de pays.
Policy responses to labour market adjustment and distributional changes
If the economy is to benefit from technological change and trade, workers will often have to change jobs or occupations, a process which may cause dislocation for workers. The more smoothly this process takes place in the labour market, the lower the adjustment costs for displaced workers and the greater the net gains to society from technological change and trade. Governments and other institutions can make the labour market more responsive to economic change through a range of measures that are targeted primarily at, but not focused exclusively on, the labour market. Reducing the costs of adjustment for workers can also lower public resistance to technological change and prevent the rise of trade protectionism.
Foreword
As the world becomes increasingly integrated, it becomes less and less possible for different policy areas to be handled independently of each other. The linkage between trade and health has been the focus of much debate: real concerns should be dealt with and any misunderstandings should be clarified based on sound evidence and rigorous analysis.