Economic research and trade policy analysis
Introduction
There is a shared sense that globalization is a powerful engine that has already contributed to lifting many out of poverty and that, if properly harnessed, could further promote growth and development to the benefit of all. For many years, however, concerns have been raised regarding certain effects of globalization on jobs, wages, and job insecurity. Recent survey evidence in European countries, for instance, indicates that in most countries a majority of respondents believe that globalization provides opportunities for economic growth but increases social inequalities. A German Marshall Fund (2007) survey shows that about half of Americans and Europeans think that “freer trade” results in more job loss than job creation. Globalization has also been blamed for the recent financial crisis and its effects on employment.
Information communications technology: The Mauritian experience of regulation and reform
This chapter presents the evolution of the information and communications technology (ICT) sector in Mauritius and the advances made in defining clear institutional, policy, legal and regulatory frameworks which have positively influenced trade in the ICT services. The case study analyses the pre-existing conditions that facilitated competition in telecommunications thus paving the way to making ICT a key pillar for the development of the Mauritian economy through its Cyber Island Strategy. The study also reviews the prominent role played by the sector ministry and the ICT regulator in fostering widespread application of modern technologies and reporting on the ensuing economic benefits for the country.
Resumen ejecutivo
En la primera sección del Informe sobre el Comercio Mundial, 2004, se examinan la evolución reciente de la estructura, el valor y el volumen del comercio internacional de bienes y servicios, y las perspectivas del comercio para 2004. Se analizan también las preferencias no recíprocas, el movimiento internacional de personas proveedoras de servicios, y las indicaciones geográficas. En la segunda sección se examina el tema de la coherencia de las políticas, subrayando la importancia de las políticas nacionales complementarias para que la liberalización del comercio pueda reportar mayores beneficios a la sociedad. Se centra en cuatro importantes esferas de la formulación de las políticas económicas: i) macroeconomía; ii) situación en materia de infraestructura y servicios de infraestructura, en particular en esferas estrechamente relacionadas con las actividades comerciales (transporte, telecomunicaciones, servicios financieros y servicios prestados a las empresas); iii) estructura de los mercados, haciendo especial hincapié en el nivel de competencia y la existencia de externalidades (factores externos); y iv) calidad de las instituciones. En la última parte de esta segunda sección del Informe se estudia la dimensión internacional de la coherencia y se determina la función de la cooperación internacional en apoyo de la formulación de políticas coherentes a nivel nacional, especialmente en la esfera de la política comercial.
The WTO Accession of Seychelles: Lessons from a Small Island Economy
Seychelles became a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2015 after an accession process that took almost twenty years to complete. Since the relaunch of its accession process in 2009, Seychelles has undertaken significant trade reforms as part of a broader economic modernization agenda. These trade reforms were anchored on the reform commitments taken by the government as part of accession to the WTO. Although it is still too early to evaluate the full impact and benefits of WTO membership, this chapter offers insights into the negotiation process and weighs the costs and benefits of WTO accession from the perspective of a small country. The main lessons for small economies aspiring to become WTO members are that: (i) WTO accession is a long and arduous process that makes heavy demands on a small country’s resources; (ii) small and developing countries should not expect any special treatment from larger and older members of the WTO; (iii) accession provides a good platform for modernization of a country’s trade regime; and (iv) accession can have a positive impact on a country’s ratings among rating agencies, international financial institutions and private investors.
Coopération internationale sur les politiques d'innovation à l'ère numérique
Les politiques nationales d'innovation, comme les autres politiques publiques, répondent à des objectifs de politique intérieure. Comme nous l'avons vu dans la section C, ces politiques peuvent avoir des retombées internationales positives et négatives, et certains des mécanismes par lesquels elles produisent ces retombées concernent le commerce. La coopération internationale peut encourager les politiques d'innovation ayant des effets transfrontières positifs et décourager celles qui ont des effets transfrontières négatifs. La présente section porte sur la coopération visant à traiter les retombées internationales liées au commerce des politiques d'innovation. Ce type de coopération pourrait contribuer à faire en sorte que les gouvernements aient la marge de manoeuvre nécessaire pour mener des politiques d'innovation, et aider à maximiser les retombées positives de ces politiques sur le plan international tout en réduisant au minimum leurs effets négatifs sur les partenaires commerciaux.
Avant-propos
Le Rapport annuel sur le commerce mondial 2004 est la deuxième publication annuelle de cette nouvelle série de documents du Secrétariat de l’OMC. Comme je l’ai indiqué l’année dernière, il a pour objectif de permettre au public de mieux comprendre les questions actuelles de politique commerciale et de contribuer à une réflexion éclairée sur les options qui s’offrent aux autorités. Comme l’année dernière, le Rapport commence par une description de l’évolution récente du commerce mondial. Viennent ensuite trois courts essais – sur les préférences commerciales, le mouvement temporaire des personnes physiques et les indications géographiques. Cette année, le thème principal du Rapport est la cohérence.
Foreword by the WTO Director-General
Trade and technology are closely interlinked. From the invention of the wheel, to the railways, to the advent of containerization, technology has constantly played a key role in shaping the way we trade — and this phenomenon is accelerating like never before. We are living through an era of unprecedented technological change, and a series of innovations that leverage the internet could have a major impact. For example, the Internet of Things, artificial intelligence, 3D printing and Blockchain have the potential to profoundly transform the way we trade, who trades and what is traded.
Prefacio
El Informe sobre el Comercio Mundial, 2006 es el cuarto de una serie iniciada en 2002. Como en los años anteriores, el presente Informe se ocupa de un tema actual de política comercial. Este año hemos examinado las subvenciones. La contribución que esperamos aportar con estos informes consiste en ayudar a comprender las complejas cuestiones a que hacen frente los gobiernos en materia de políticas comerciales. No se trata primordialmente de un informe preceptivo, sino más bien de una invitación a realizar una reflexión más profunda, y se dirige no sólo a los responsables de la formulación de políticas, sino también al público que ellos representan y a las personas y las organizaciones que tratan activamente de influir en las políticas gubernamentales. Además del tema central, el Informe también examina brevemente la reciente evolución del comercio y analiza algunas características destacadas de los últimos acontecimientos comerciales o de algún aspecto particular del comercio. Este año, el Informe examina brevemente el comercio de los textiles y el vestido, las corrientes de ingresos internacionales y de pagos de regalías y derechos de licencia, las tendencias del comercio de los países menos adelantados y las repercusiones de los desastres naturales y los actos terroristas en las corrientes del comercio internacional.
Agricultural Logistics in Lagging Regions: Evidence from Uganda
Small scale farmers face many hurdles when attempting to connect to global markets. While infrastructure and trade facilitation improvements are helping to reduce overall trade costs, the challenges faced by such farmers are most acute at the local level. Efforts to eradicate poverty therefore need to start with constraints at the farmgate. The problems faced are compounded by the general lack access to proper agricultural inputs, technology and intermediate services.
Conclusión
En este informe se ha pasado revista a una amplia gama de cuestiones. En el Resumen Ejecutivo que figura al comienzo del Informe se describen a grandes rasgos los principales temas tratados y las conclusiones formuladas. Un Informe de esta índole debe limitarse a bosquejar cuestiones complejas y basarse en gran medida en la labor analítica más detallada de muchos investigadores. En el texto se hace referencia a esa labor. Muchas de las cuestiones examinadas en el informe son «blancos móviles», sobre todo cuando los gobiernos toman decisiones de política que tienen consecuencias y los Miembros de la OMC participan activamente en importantes negociaciones comerciales.
Incidence des subventions
La présente section donne une vue d’ensemble de l’utilisation des subventions tant au niveau mondial qu’à différents niveaux de désagrégation géographique et sectorielle. Étant donné la quantité et la qualité des données disponibles, il n’est pas possible de présenter un tableau complet et systématique de l’incidence des subventions.
Executive summary
The expansion of international trade has been essential to development and poverty reduction. Today’s economy is unquestionably global. Trade as a proportion of global GDP has approximately doubled since 1975. Markets for goods and services have become increasingly integrated through a fall in trade barriers, with technology helping drive trade costs lower. But trade is not an end in itself. People measure the value of trade by the extent to which it delivers better livelihoods, through higher incomes, greater choice, and a more sustainable future, among other benefits. For the extreme poor living on less than $1.25 a day, the central value of trade is its potential to help transform their lives and those of their families. In this way, there is no doubt that the integration of global markets through trade openness has made a critical contribution to poverty reduction. The number of people living in extreme poverty around the world has fallen by around one billion since 1990. Without the growing participation of developing countries in international trade, and sustained efforts to lower barriers to the integration of markets, it is hard to see how this reduction could have been achieved.
Introducción
El hecho de que la economía mundial haya pasado por un período de enorme dinamismo y grandes perturbaciones durante el último cuarto de siglo no es sorprendente: los dos fenómenos están inextricablemente ligados. La economía mundial solo crece cuando aumenta la productividad, y la productividad solo aumenta cuando la economía mundial genera una producción mayor y de mejor calidad de manera más eficiente. Las preocupaciones que existen actualmente en muchos países sobre la globalización se deben, al menos en parte, a los problemas de ajuste económico que plantea una economía mundial cada vez más productiva. En el Informe sobre el comercio mundial 2017 se examinan dos de los principales motores del actual progreso económico mundial, la tecnología y el comercio, y se analizan sus efectos en el mercado de trabajo. Además, el Informe examina cómo están cambiando los problemas de adaptación a este nuevo mercado de trabajo y cómo se están ajustando las economías. En particular, se pasa revista a las similitudes y diferencias de los efectos que la tecnología, por un lado, y el comercio, por otro, tienen en el funcionamiento del mercado de trabajo.
Notas técnicas
Con frecuencia se utiliza el término “países” para hacer referencia a los Miembros de la OMC, a pesar de que algunos Miembros no son países en el sentido usual del término, sino que se trata oficialmente de “territorios aduaneros”. La definición de grupos geográficos y de otro tipo empleada en el presente informe no implica la expresión de opinión alguna por parte de la Secretaría sobre la condición jurídica de ningún país o territorio, sobre la delimitación de sus fronteras ni sobre los derechos y obligaciones de ningún Miembro de la OMC respecto de los Acuerdos de la OMC. Los colores, fronteras, denominaciones y clasificaciones que figuran en los mapas de la publicación no implican, por parte de la OMC, ningún juicio sobre la condición jurídica o de otra índole de ningún territorio, ni constituyen una aprobación o aceptación de ninguna frontera.
Services liberalization, negotiations and regulation: Some lessons from the GATS experience
The services economy has been undergoing a major transformation over the last three decades, moving away from the old model, where services were more often than not government functions provided by public utility entities, towards a new paradigm of private, sector-led, competitive markets, where services are exchanged on a commercial basis. Accordingly, the role of governments has fundamentally changed in many activities from being the provider of the service into that of the supervisor or regulator in pursuit of public interests. Increasingly, services markets continue to be liberalized, motivated by the usual gains from competition (better quality, lower prices, wider choices, expanding markets and more job creation).
Abreviaturas y siglas
Las mujeres y el comercio: el papel del comercio en la promoción de la igualdad de género es un informe conjunto del Banco Mundial y de la Organización Mundial del Comercio (OMC). Coordinaron el informe Maria Liungman y Nadia Rocha, del Banco Mundial, y José- Antonio Monteiro y Roberta Piermartini, de la OMC. El equipo agradece la orientación y el apoyo de nuestros colegas del Banco Mundial: Caroline Freund, Directora Mundial, Comercio, Inversión y Competitividad; William Maloney, Economista Jefe para el Crecimiento Equitativo, las Finanzas y las Instituciones; el Grupo sobre Género del Banco Mundial, bajo la dirección de Caren Grown, Directora Global de Género; y Antonio Nucifora, Gerente de Práctica, Unidad de Comercio e Integración Regional; así como de nuestros colegas de la OMC: Aegyoung Jung, Asesora Jurídica Principal del Director General; y Robert Koopman, Economista Jefe y Director de la División de Estudios Económicos y Estadística.
Towards health and trade policy coherence
There is common ground between health and trade, and between the objectives of the WHO and the WTO. The WHO's objective is "the attainment of all peoples of the highest possible level of health", and WHO defines health as "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity". Good health is one important building block for sustainable economic development. With regard to trade, an underlying assumption is that a liberal international trade regime, subject to reasonably stable and predictable conditions, improves the climate for investment, production and employment creation, and therefore contributes to economic growth and development. Generally, the health status of a country is affected positively by such growth. This expectation is reflected in the opening words of the agreement establishing the World Trade Organization
Balancing legal certainty with regulatory flexibility
The concept of legal certainty is a central element of most legal systems in the world (Maxeiner 2008: 28). It can be associated with the rule of law, but variations exist concerning its exact contours and its relative importance vis-à-vis other fundamental legal principles. In particular, legal certainty is often contrasted with principles of justice or rightfulness (von Arnauld 2006: 638). Indeed, a formal understanding of legal certainty which focuses on issues of stability and consistency does not guarantee a fair and just outcome. More fundamentally, even though legal certainty is one of the most effective safeguards against governmental and administrative arbitrariness, it offers no protection against unjust or unfair laws. How can the potential for conflict between legal certainty and justice be solved?
Should high domestic value added in exports be an objective of policy?
Global value chains make it easier for developing countries to move away from export reliance on unprocessed primary products to become exporters of manufactures and services. Global value chains (GVCs) allow countries to specialize in a particular activity and join a global production network. As a developing country moves from export of primary products to export of manufactures and services via GVCs, the ratio of domestic value added to gross export value tends to fall. Many developing country policy-makers worry about this trend and aspire to increase their value added contribution to exports. There are a number of reasons why this objective is not good policy. It may seem like simple math that a higher domestic value added share means more total value added exported and hence more GDP. But that simple idea ignores the reality that imported goods and services are a key support to a country’s competitiveness. The chapter documents this via the history of the successful East Asian industrializers as well as more recent evidence from Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) economies. If a country artificially replaces key inputs with inferior domestic versions, the end result is likely to be fewer gross exports and less, not more, total value added exports.
Acknowledgements
The World Trade Report 2004 was prepared under the general direction of Deputy Director-General Dr. Kipkorir Aly Azad Rana. Patrick Low, Director of the Economic Research and Statistics Division, led the team responsible for writing the Report. The principal authors of the Report were Bijit Bora, Zdenek Drabek, K. Michael Finger, Marion Jansen, Alexander Keck, Patrick Low, Hildegunn Kyvik Nordås, Roberta Piermartini and Robert Teh. Barbara D’Andrea of the Economic Research and Statistics Division, co-authored Section IB.2. Jeffrey Gertler of the Legal Affairs Division contributed to the writing of Section IB.1. Mukela Luanga of the Economic Research and Statistics Division provided critical input to a number of the principal authors. Trade statistics and tariff information were provided by the Statistics Group of the Economic Research and Statistics Division, coordinated by Guy Karsenty, Julia de Verteuil, Andreas Maurer and Jürgen Richtering.
Selected trade developments and issues
The Agreement on Textiles and Clothing (ATC) came to an end on 1 January 2005. Much interest, not to mention concern, was expressed about the likely impact on production and trade of the removal of quota restrictions. It was apparent to most observers that there would be winners and losers from the additional liberalization. It is too early to say how the market will look beyond the relatively short period upon which we can base our observations, but this note looks at what we know so far about the pattern of trade that has emerged since the quantitative restrictions were (largely) removed. A caveat is in order here: there can be little doubt that the termination of the AT C affected the patterns of trade observed in 2005, but we have not developed a rigorous analytical approach to the question of what other factors might also influence the pattern of trade flows.
The Rise of the People’s Republic of China and Its Competition Effects on Innovation in Japan
As a reaction to import competition from low-wage economies, firms in developed economies would respond by upgrading their innovative activities, leading to so-called defensive skill-biased innovation. In this chapter, we examine this “defensive innovation” hypothesis, which was first discussed in Wood (1994) and subsequently formalized in Thoenig and Verdier (2003). In a broader context, the effect of competition on the rate of innovation has been one of the most studied areas in the literature (e.g., Aghion et al. 2005). In the study most relevant to our work, Bloom, Draca, and Van Reenen (2016) found that a large sample of European firms increased a wide range of their innovative activities (patenting, research and development [R&D] expenditures, computer use, and total factor productivity growth), driven by intensified competition from the People’s Republic of China. This innovation was conducted within-firm.
Théorie du commerce international et ressources naturelles
Cette section examine les principaux aspects du commerce des ressources naturelles du point de vue théorique. Le commerce est-il un mécanisme efficace pour assurer l’accès aux ressources naturelles ? Quel est son impact sur des ressources finies ou épuisables, notamment dans des conditions de «libre accès» lorsque la propriété d’une ressource naturelle, et l’accès à cette ressource, sont communs ? Y a-t-il une relation entre le commerce et son impact sur l’environnement ? Est-ce que le commerce renforce ou atténue les problèmes liés à la prépondérance des ressources naturelles dans certaines économies ? Et comment influe-t-il sur la volatilité des prix des ressources ? L’examen de ces grandes questions s’appuie sur la littérature théorique consacrée à l’analyse des déterminants et des effets du commerce des ressources naturelles.
Agradecimientos y Descargo de responsabilidad
El Informe sobre el comercio mundial 2017 ha sido elaborado bajo la responsabilidad general de Xiaozhun Yi, Director General Adjunto de la OMC, y Robert Koopman, Director de la División de Estudios Económicos y Estadística. El Informe de este año ha sido coordinado por Marc Bacchetta y José- Antonio Monteiro. Los autores del Informe son Marc Bacchetta, Cosimo Beverelli, John Hancock, Mark Koulen, Viktor Kummritz, José-Antonio Monteiro, Roberta Piermartini, Stela Rubinova y Robert Teh (División de Estudios Económicos y Estadística).
Introducción
Los servicios se han convertido en el sector más dinámico del comercio mundial, pero por vías que no siempre se reconocen ni se comprenden. Así como han llegado a dominar muchas economías nacionales, los servicios también desempeñan un papel más importante en la economía mundial. Aunque esto se debe a muchos factores, como el consumo, la liberalización y la inversión, el factor determinante es la tecnología. Servicios que antes eran difíciles de comercializar, porque solo podían prestarse físicamente, son cada vez más fáciles de comercializar, porque pueden prestarse digitalmente. En el Informe sobre el Comercio Mundial 2019 se examina esta globalización de los servicios: por qué se produce, de qué modo está afectando a las economías y dónde es necesario introducir nuevos enfoques de política.
Selected issues in trade and trade policy
South-South trade has long been promoted as a means to reduce the dependence of developing countries on markets of developed countries and to enhance diversification of Southern exports beyond primary commodities. Most of the mechanisms that were created to foster co-operation among developing countries were largely subregional and regional arrangements, many of them preferential in nature. During the 1950s and 1960s, the promotion of South-South trade was in many instances part of a set of policy measures anchored in a strategy of import substitution behind high trade barriers. South-South trade grew in spurts as developing country economies went through stop and go cycles. Despite efforts to promote and diversify South-South trade, primary products continued to dominate these flows in most regions, and by 1990 South-South trade accounted for only 6.5 per cent of world trade.
Promoting Good Governance: From Encouraging a Principle to Taking Concrete Action – Examples from WTO Accession Protocols and the WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement
Long proposed in aspirational terms, good governance has increasingly become a subject of substantive global policy debate and international rule-making. An analysis of recent negotiating exercises, such as World Trade Organization (WTO) accession protocols and the WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA), shows that governance has been discussed among WTO members and embedded in WTO rules. This chapter first examines how WTO accession protocols addressed the issue of governance improvement by subjecting acceding governments to binding, accession-specific commitments. These commitments, in addition to ensuring greater market openness and integration in the rules-based global economy, established the legal basis for the increased rule of law for acceding members. The commitments undertaken by these members demonstrate their adherence to principles of transparency and predictability of trade policies, as well as their overall commitment to subject domestic trade regimes to international trade law. Improved governance is achieved through the entirety of WTO accession-specific commitments on rules, including the ones on transparency, policy enforcement, trading rights, state trading/ state-owned enterprises (STEs/SOEs) and government procurement. A similar trend can be observed when analysing the good governance provisions of the new TFA, albeit with differences in their modus operandi. WTO members took a multifaceted and indirect approach, seeking to improve integrity by increasing transparency, strengthening due process rights and reducing space for discretionary action. Together, good governance provisions in accession protocols and the TFA contribute to building the upper floors of the new multilateral trading system by creating a binding set of rules and new standards that will be respected by virtually the entire trading world.
Evolución del comercio y de las políticas comerciales
La expansión de la producción y el comercio mundiales adquirió un impulso considerable en el segundo semestre de 2003, como consecuencia de lo cual el aumento medio anual del PIB mundial y de las exportaciones mundiales de mercancías fue del 2,5 por ciento y el 4,5 por ciento, respectivamente. Esas variaciones representaron mejoras superiores a las previstas con relación al año anterior, aunque la tasa de crecimiento del comercio siguió siendo inferior a la tasa media registrada en el decenio de 1990. Los resultados anuales se vieron afectados negativamente por una combinación de factores temporales poco corrientes y deficiencias estructurales a más largo plazo en una serie de economías importantes (en particular, la situación del sistema bancario en el Japón y de los mercados laborales en Europa Occidental). Uno de los factores temporales que influyeron en los resultados fue la aparición del síndrome respiratorio agudo severo (SRAS) en Asia Oriental. Aunque el SRAS siguió siendo una epidemia limitada en compación con el paludismo y el síndrome de inmunodeficiencia adquirida (SIDA), tuvo una gran repercusión a corto plazo en el movimiento de las personas y en la industria turística de la región. En el primer trimestre del año, la intensificación de las tensiones que dio lugar al conflicto militar en Iraq debilitó la confianza de los consumidores y las empresas en muchas regiones. En los países de la OCDE, el indicador de tendencias compuesto (empresas) registró su nivel más bajo en marzo de 2003, para mostrar después una trayectoria ascendente a partir de mayo. Las principales Bolsas mostraron una evolución similar: descendieron considerablemente hasta marzo, pero se recuperaron después y mejoraron notablemente hasta finales del año.
Foreword
This publication is a product of the joint research programme of the International Labour Office (ILO) and the World Trade Organization (WTO). It follows up on three prior joint publications by the ILO and WTO Secretariats. The first was a review of the literature on trade and employment, the second a report on the linkages between trade and informal employment, and the third an edited volume on making globalization socially sustainable. This fourth publication discusses the importance of skills development policies in helping workers and firms harness the benefits of trade.
Disclaimer
At the heart of the World Trade Organization (WTO), as an international organization, is a set of rules that regulate trade between nations: a body of agreements which have been negotiated and signed by governments of the majority of the world's trading nations, with the aim of promoting transparency, predictability and non-discrimination in trading relations. These agreements, covering trade in goods, trade in services and trade-related aspects of intellectual property rights, help to define and inform the multiple roles of the WTO, in administering the trade agreements, providing a forum for trade negotiations, handling trade disputes, monitoring national trade policies, providing technical assistance and capacity building for developing countries, and cooperating with other international organizations. Understanding these agreements and their practical, policy and legal contexts therefore provides significant insights into the WTO as an institution, its activities and international role, its partnerships with other organizations, and the way in which WTO Member governments identify and pursue their national interests through this intergovernmental forum.
How constraints and opportunities shape women’s roles in trade
Compared to men, women face many constraints that restrict their ability to trade and to realize the benefits of trade. Some of these barriers are directly related to the way that goods and services cross international borders, such as higher trading costs and discrimination that women can face at border crossings. But beyond-the-border constraints are equally important. For example, womens limited access to education explains, in part, why female employment is concentrated in low-skill sectors such as textiles. Female entrepreneurs also have more difficulty than men in obtaining finance, especially for riskier activities like trade. Ingrained gender bias for domestic tasks such as child rearing limits womens flexibility and mobility. These limitations can severely reduce womens access to trade-related employment and services.
Ajustement du marché du travail et changements distributifs ; réponses des pouvoirs publics
Pour que l’économie bénéficie du changement technologique et du commerce, les travailleurs doivent souvent changer d’emploi ou d’activité, processus qui peut être pour eux source de perturbations. Plus ce processus se déroule de façon harmonieuse sur le marché du travail, moins les coûts d’ajustement sont élevés pour les travailleurs privés d’emploi et plus les gains nets tirés du progrès technologique et du commerce sont importants pour la société. Les gouvernements et les autres institutions peuvent améliorer la réponse du marché du travail au changement économique au moyen de diverses mesures axées principalement, mais pas exclusivement, sur le marché du travail. La réduction des coûts d’ajustement pour les travailleurs peut aussi réduire la résistance du public au changement technologique et empêcher la montée du protectionnisme commercial.
Global production networks, electronic products and developing countries
Many manufactured goods are now produced with components sourced from several places around the world, using international supply chains within global production networks (GPNs). This is particularly the case for most finished electronic products, which are not “made in” a single country any more, but are rather “made in the world”.

