Regional trade agreements
Regional Trade Agreements and the Multilateral Trading System
The book contains a collection of studies examining trade- related issues negotiated in regional trade agreements (RTAs) and how RTAs are related to the WTO’s rules. While previous work has focused on subsets of RTAs, these studies are based on what is probably the largest dataset used to date, and highlight key issues that have been negotiated in all RTAs notified to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the World Trade Organization (WTO). New rules within RTAs are compared to rules agreed upon by WTO members. The extent of their divergences and the potential implications for parties to RTAs, as well as for WTO members that are not parties to RTAs, are examined. This volume makes an important contribution to the current debate on the role of the WTO in regulating international trade and how WTO rules relate to new rules being developed by RTAs.
Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements are due to all the data providers, mostly national administrations or WTO delegations who have made this information available including through notifications presented in Technical Annex A. In a number of cases, data has been made available on national websites or through regional organizations. Given the vast amount of statistical data and metadata that needed to be processed, and because this information is not available in one single organization, this publication was only possible as a joint effort of the WTO, ITC, and UNCTAD. Each of the three organizations has a proven track record and comparative strengths in the field of tariff analysis.
Do regional anti- dumping regimes make a difference?
The conclusion of regional trade agreements (RTAs) that liberalize trade is often accompanied by the negotiation of rules and disciplines safeguarding the ability of the parties to take defensive measures temporarily restricting access by other RTA parties to their markets, thus temporarily stepping back from opening markets. Accordingly, in special circumstances and under specific conditions, certain defence mechanisms can be used by governments, for instance when facing what is described as a situation of “unfair trade”, if penetration by foreign products into domestic markets causes damage or injury to the domestic industry.
Trade remedy provisions in regional trade agreements
This paper examines trade remedy provisions in regional trade agreements (RTAs). By trade remedies are meant anti-dumping, countervailing and emergency or safeguard measures. Anti-dumping and countervailing duties can be levied on exporters who engage in ‘unfair’ trading practices that cause material injury to domestic producers. These unfair trading practices can take the form of selling products below their ‘normal’ price or of benefiting from government-provided subsidies. Safeguard actions can be taken even if there is no unfair trade practice so long as imports have increased to an extent that serious injury has been suffered by domestic producers. No matter the difference in conditions under which they can be triggered, all these instruments represent internationally agreed means for a country to temporarily increase the level of trade protection received by its injured domestic industry.
Technical annexes
The increasing number of regional trade agreements (RTAs) negotiated by countries in recent years underlines the importance countries place on these RTAs. Selected information on RTAs by country is presented in the tables below.
Competition provisions in regional trade agreements
This paper maps and examines competition-related provisions in seventy-four regional trade agreements (RTAs). The template used for the mapping is based on previous work done to map competition-related provisions in RTAs and on recent thoughtful critiques of those approaches. The mapping undertaken in this paper applies to all competition-related provisions of the RTAs and not just to the competition policy chapter. This distinction is important because there are salient competition provisions in the other chapters of regional trade agreements which affect the conditions of competition among suppliers, undertakings and enterprises that operate in the markets of RTA members.
Cross- cutting issues in regional trade agreements: Sanitary and phytosanitary measures
There has been a proliferation of regional trade agreements (RTAs) since the early 1990s. As of 1 December 2014, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)/ WTO members had notified nearly 600 RTAs, counting goods and services notifications separately, to the WTO. Out of these RTAs, 256 are currently in force. Many of the RTAs contain provisions regarding sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures that conform to provisions contained in the WTO Sanitary and Phytosanitary Agreement (hereafter “SPS Agreement”). Other RTAs currently in force to determine provisions go beyond the SPS Agreement requirements. This chapter summarizes whether the key provisions of the SPS Agreement are incorporated into RTAs and highlights trends where the RTAs provisions go beyond the provisions in the SPS Agreement.
Introduction
The World Tariff Profiles is a joint publication of the WTO, ITC and UNCTAD devoted to market access for goods. This statistical yearbook contains a comprehensive compilation of the main tariff parameters for each of the 159 WTO members plus other countries and customs territories where data is available. Each country profile presents information on tariffs imposed by each economy on its imports complemented with an analysis of the market access conditions it faces in its major export markets.
Introduction
Regional trade agreements (RTAs) have proliferated around the world in the past decade. Some 200 RTAs currently in force have been notified to the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the number will continue to rise given the many RTAs being proposed and negotiated. It is estimated that, if one takes into account RTAs which are in force but have not been notified, signed but not yet in force, currently being negotiated, and in the proposal stage, close to 400 RTAs are scheduled to be implemented by 2010 (Fiorentino, Verdeja and Toqueboeuf, 2006).
Market access provisions in regional trade agreements
Regional trade agreements (RTAs) have proliferated over the past decade around the world to cover nearly half of global trade. The number of RTAs notified to the WTO is approaching 200, while the total number of RTAs around the world exceeds 300. The global RTA spree has forged a veritable spaghetti bowl of multiple and often overlapping agreements. The various rules included in each RTA entangle the bowl further. Besides market access of goods, many RTAs today include provisions in such trade disciplines as services, investment, standards, intellectual property, and competition rules, as well as a host of issues not directly related to trade, such as the environment.
Market access provisions on trade in goods in regional trade agreements
The goal of this study is to provide a comprehensive overview of the market access provisions that apply to trade in goods contained in regional trade agreements (RTAs) notified to the WTO and in force. Although a number of studies have looked at market access provisions in trade in goods, much of this work has been limited to subsets of RTAs, particularly plurilateral RTAs involving three or more parties. Th e goal of this study is to expand beyond the more commonly studied RTAs and to include all RTAs notified to the WTO for which data are available. A previous study published in 2012 surveyed the market access provisions applicable in merchandise trade for 193 RTAs in force at that time. Since then the number of RTAs has continued to grow. As of December 2014, more than 250 RTAs containing provisions on trade in goods have been notified to the WTO and are in force. The majority of these RTAs – more than 80 per wto_cent – were notified to the WTO in the last ten years or so.
Foreword
Technology has always propelled trade. From the invention of the steam engine and steamship in the 1700s, the popularization of the standard shipping container in the 1950s, and the rise of the internet in the 1990s, technology has over the centuries profoundly changed the way we trade. Today, emerging technologies and digitalization are changing trade at a speed much faster than before – leading to both opportunities and challenges.
Global interoperability of data models for trade documents and platforms
In a digital environment, for parties to seamlessly exchange data and documents, all information needs to be clearly defined and unambiguous (World Economic Forum/UNECE, 2017). Reaching agreement on both the semantic content (i.e. data definitions such as whether the ‘port of unlading’ is the same as the ‘port of discharge’) and the syntax of data (i.e. data structure or format) is critical to ensure trading partners wanting to exchange information understand it in the same way.
Conclusion
In the Fourth Industrial Revolution, technological development and adoption is growing exponentially. The recent COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the societal adoption and acceptance of digital technologies and has made one thing clear – the future of trade is digital and the 5 Gs of TradeTech are the engines.
Executive summary
The promise of TradeTech – the set of technologies that enables global trade to become more efficient, inclusive and sustainable – is multifaceted, from trade facilitation to efficiency gains and reduced costs, to greater transparency and resilience of supply chains. Of particular interest for this publication is the potential of artificial intelligence (AI), blockchain and distributed ledger technology (DLT) and the internet of things (IoT) to shape the global trade ecosystem.
Global legal recognition of electronic transactions and documents
On average, a cross-border transaction requires the exchange of 36 documents and 240 copies (Fletcher, 2019). A shipment of roses from Kenya to Rotterdam can generate a pile of paper 25 cm high, and the cost of handling it can be higher than the cost of moving the containers (Allison, 2016).
Global digital identity
Identity and trust lie at the core of each trade interaction. As global value chains become increasingly digital, organizations need to ensure that they can trust the digital identity of legal and physical persons1 or products they deal with, and can efficiently link that digital identity with a real organization, specific product or device (see Box 17).
Global trade rules access and computational law
Businesses operate in an environment of increasing legal complexity. At a global level, trade compliance is particularly time consuming and costly, as enterprises need to be aware of and comply with rules under different international agreements as well as meet their contractual obligations.
Avant-propos
La technologie a toujours été un moteur du commerce. De l’invention de la machine et du navire à vapeur dans les années 1700, à la popularisation du conteneur de transport normalisé dans les années 1950 et à l’essor d’Internet dans les années 1990, la technologie a profondément modifié les méthodes de commerce au fil des siècles. Aujourd’hui, les nouvelles technologies et la transition numérique font évoluer le commerce beaucoup plus vite qu’auparavant, ce qui crée à la fois des débouchés et des obstacles.