Economic research and trade policy analysis
General equilibrium trade policy analysis with structural gravity
A general equilibrium analysis accounts for all the direct and indirect linkages between the various elements in the economic system considered (e.g. countries or sectors), while imposing and satisfying all goods/services market-clearing and resource market-clearing conditions.
Market access goods negotiations: Salience, results and meaning
Trade negotiations and the exchange of concessions on trade in goods have been the cornerstone of the multilateral trading system. This chapter examines the salient features, results and meaning of the schedules of tariff concessions and commitments on goods of Article XII members: what they mean and what they have contributed. We find that the bilateral market access of Article XII members has shaped the landscape of tariff commitments that provide transparency and predictability to today’s merchandise trade relationships. We also found that the large number of post-2001 accessions coincided with an extended period of global growth, particularly among the major emerging economies, fostered by the stability of trade regimes. When we compared Article XII members with General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) members on bound tariffs, we found that the comparable bound tariff rates were higher for GATT members, and that a number of original members retained unbound tariff lines for non-agricultural products. Overall, results from the concluded accessions have produced more liberal tariff concessions than those of original WTO members, expanding the market access for WTO members’ exports. The lower barriers to trade in these Article XII members’ markets have improved economic efficiency, increased competition and led to better resource reallocation.
Introduction
Les ressources naturelles sont indispensables à la vie humaine. Les ressources non renouvelables, comme le pétrole et le gaz naturel, fournissent l’énergie nécessaire à la production de presque tous les biens et services. Les ressources renouvelables, comme les forêts, les poissons et les aquifères, sont parmi les ressources naturelles les plus précieuses de la planète. Si elles sont bien gérées, elles peuvent fournir de façon continue des produits qui contribuent grandement à la qualité de la vie humaine. Les ressources naturelles occupent une place de plus en plus importante dans le commerce mondial; elles représentaient environ 24 pour cent du commerce total de marchandises en 2008. Le volume de ces échanges est resté assez stable au cours des dix dernières années mais leur valeur a augmenté de 20 pour cent par an.
The 2004 WTO accession of Cambodia: Negotiating priorities and experience – growth and integration eleven years later
Cambodia was the first least-developed country to complete negotiations to become a member of the WTO. Its negotiations took place in the context of the Decision on LDC accessions taken by the WTO General Council in December 2002, in which WTO members agreed that they would be bound by certain restraints in dealing with LDCs seeking to join the WTO. Given the constraints that, as an LDC, it faced when entering the negotiations, Cambodia recognised that joining the WTO could play an important part in accelerating its growth and development. This chapter describes Cambodia’s approach to the accession negotiations: its negotiating strategy, the negotiations themselves and their outcome and Cambodia’s post-accession activities. The foundation of all international trading arrangements is the WTO, its concepts and its rules, most of which are carried over into preferential trading arrangements. Being a member of the WTO provides a member’s traders with the transparent and predictable trading environment that they need to prosper. It can truly be said that being a WTO member is one of the main pillars of Cambodia’s successful economic performance.
Supply chains and risk
One area in which both business practitioners and policy makers are immediately able to perceive the significance of the supply chain concept is in the new risks that have materialised in an increasingly interconnected world . Isolated events such as the September 11 attack in the United States in 2001, the Eyjafjallajökull volcano in Iceland, the Fukushima disaster resulting from the Tohoku earthquake and tsunami in 2011, and flooding in Thailand in the same year now precipitate waves of uncertainty that travel faster and further than ever before. Perhaps unsurprisingly, the literature on risk and supply chains is one of the most advanced in theoretical development and operational applicability among the supply chain issues reviewed in the literature. In this chapter, we review the central concept of supply chain risk management (SCRM) and provide a more in-depth analysis of the SCRM framework’s underlying concepts of risk identification, assessment, and mitigation.
Expansion of global value chains in Asian developing countries
During the past three decades, the development of highly integrated global value chains in which products are supplied, manufactured and distributed across national boundaries have created a new form of division of labour among Asian economies, especially in North-East and South-East Asia (IDE-JETRO and WTO, 2011). The rapid growth of global value chains has dramatically changed production patterns, international trade and foreign direct investment (FDI) in the region, with a notable expansion of intra-regional trade through multiple border crossings of parts and components (ESCAP, 2009).
Avant-propos
Nouvelle publication du Secrétariat de l’OMC, le Rapport sur le commerce mondial proposera chaque année une analyse de l’évolution observée dans ce domaine et des questions de fond importantes pour le système des échanges. Au-delà du suivi et de l’interprétation des grandes tendances du commerce international, il s’efforcera d’aider le public à mieux comprendre les problèmes du moment. Le rapport ne prétend cependant pas apporter une réponse globale à des questions qui sont complexes et dont les multiples facettes font l’objet de discussions incessantes au sein des États et des peuples. En s’appliquant à rappeler la genèse des problèmes posés et à offrir un cadre pour leur analyse, il vise plutôt à permettre à chacun de débattre en toute connaissance de cause et de mieux évaluer les ripostes qui peuvent être envisagées.
Trade in a globalizing world
Economic integration is proceeding across the world at an unprecedented pace. Globalization has brought enormous benefits for many countries and citizens. But some have been on the losing end of the process, and opposition to further integration is mounting for a multitude of reasons. Trade is just one aspect of globalization, and links with broader economic, political and technological forces are manifold and complex. Certain arguments against open trade are fuelled by a variety of factors – including a general fear of change – that have little to do with further trade opening. Governments responding to antitrade pressures stemming from anti-globalization arguments risk making poor policy choices. Trade scepticism is clearly a cause of concern, particularly at a time when WTO members are striving to complete the Doha Round. At this crucial juncture, it seems appropriate to revisit the case for trade and to ask ourselves whether the traditional arguments in favour of free trade are still valid.
Tendances récentes
Le commerce international s’est repris en 2002, après le recul enregistré l’année précédente, augmentant d’environ 2,5 pour cent en volume, soit plus vite que la production mondiale. Ce redressement s’est opéré malgré la faiblesse de la reprise économique mondiale, la forte compression des flux de capitaux, les amples fluctuations des taux de change, les restrictions plus sévères imposées sur les transactions commerciales internationales pour limiter les risques liés au terrorisme et la montée des tensions géopolitiques. Le commerce a connu une vigoureuse expansion en Asie et dans les économies en transition, qui reflète en grande partie l’amélioration des résultats économiques dans ces régions. Il a cependant stagné en Europe occidentale et reculé en Amérique latine par suite des turbulences économiques survenues dans plusieurs pays de la région. Les importations d’Amérique du Nord ont repris parallèlement au renforcement de la demande intérieure, tandis que les exportations ont continué à diminuer en 2002.
Conclusions
The world trading system has always been shaped by technological progress. Not only is technology a determinant of trade costs, but it also defines what products can be traded across borders, and it affects patterns of comparative advantage.
Foreword by the WTO Director-General
The story of economic progress is a story of economic change. It is a story in which whole industries can rise and fall, replaced by new ideas and innovations, which demand new skills. This relentless process of transformation has built the global economy of today, bringing growing prosperity for billions of people around the world – and it has made the ability to adjust and adapt an essential element of economic success. Now, as before, individuals, firms and societies are striving to respond to rapidly evolving economic conditions in order to share in the benefits. The difference today is the remarkable speed at which these changes are occurring.
Introduction
Trade and output growth resumed in the second half of 2009 following record declines earlier in the year. The recovery through the first quarter of 2010 was insufficient to attain pre-crisis levels. The WTO has projected a further recovery in 2010 from the depressed levels of 2009, which should reverse some but not all of the impact of the trade collapse. One positive development in 2009 was the absence of any major increase in trade barriers imposed by WTO members in response to the crisis, despite high unemployment in many countries. The WTO system of trade regulation played a significant role in helping to prevent another descent into protectionism that so exacerbated economic conditions in the 1930s.
Agradecimeintos
El Informe sobre el Comercio Mundial 2006 ha sido elaborado bajo la supervisión general del Director General Adjunto Alejandro Jara. Patrick Low, Director de la División de Estudios Económicos y Estadística, dirigió el equipo encargado de redactar el Informe. Los autores principales del Informe son Marc Bachetta, Bijit Bora, K. Michael Finger, Marion Jansen, Alexander Keck, Clarisse Morgan, Roberta Piermartini y Robert Teh. Las estadísticas comerciales fueron facilitadas por el grupo de estadística de la División de Estudios Económicos y Estadística, bajo la coordinación de Guy Karsenty, Julia de Verteuil, Andreas Maurer y Jürgen Richtering.
introduction
Les normes de produit spécifient ou déterminent les caractéristiques d’un produit. Ces caractéristiques peuvent être la conception, la taille, le poids, la sécurité, le rendement énergétique, les émissions polluantes, l’interopérabilité, le matériau et même le procédé de production. On peut citer comme exemples les dimensions des conteneurs de transport et des filetages, l’efficacité des ceintures de sécurité, des airbags ou des appareils médicaux, la pasteurisation du lait ou les protocoles qui permettent aux ordinateurs de différents fabricants de communiquer entre eux.
Efectos de la tecnología en el funcionamiento del mercado de trabajo
En esta sección se examinan los efectos de la tecnología en el nivel y la composición del empleo y en los salarios. El progreso tecnológico, al incrementar la productividad de los factores de producción, amplía la frontera de posibilidades de producción de una economía de forma que esta puede producir lo mismo con menos recursos, o producir más con la misma cantidad de recursos.
Introduction
Partout dans le monde, les gouvernements interviennent activement et ouvertement dans les économies pour transformer lorientation, la structure et la compétitivité de branches de production, de secteurs ou de technologies spécifiques. Ces interventions peuvent avoir des effets à la fois positifs et négatifs dans léconomie mondiale hyper connectée daujourdhui. La coopération et les règles internationales sont nécessaires pour faire en sorte que les politiques gouvernementales, telles que les initiatives nationales visant à stimuler linnovation et la technologie, encouragent lexpansion et léchange de connaissances plutôt quelles ne promeuvent le progrès technologique de certaines économies aux dépens des autres. Le Rapport sur le commerce mondial 2020 examine le rôle des politiques en matière dinnovation et des politiques industrielles dans une économie mondiale de plus en plus numérisée, et explique le rôle de lOrganisation mondiale du commerce dans ce contexte en mutation.
Jordan
This chapter explores how non-state actors (NSAs) seek to influence government policy in relation to the World Trade Organization (WTO) and preferential trade agreements (PTAs) as alternative venues for international trade cooperation. Little research has been done on NSA–government interaction on trade policy development in Jordan, and almost no analysis exists that captures and contrasts this interaction in relation to multilateral as opposed to bilateral or plurilateral negotiations. This chapter, based on interviews with representatives of government and NSAs, focuses on recent developments in Jordan’s trade policy-making. It has found that NSA activity in Jordan is relatively weakly developed compared with the other cases in this study, but that it is growing, in large part as a result of the influence of international actors, including US foreign aid donors and some other international business and civil society organizations (CSOs).
Acknowledgements and Disclaimer
The World Trade Report 2019 was prepared under the general responsibility of Xiaozhun Yi, WTO Deputy Director-General, and Robert Koopman, Director of the WTO Economic Research and Statistics Division. The Report was coordinated by Emmanuelle Ganne and Stela Rubínová (Economic Research and Statistics Division) and by Antonia Carzaniga (Trade in Services and Investment Division). The lead authors of the Report are Barbara d’Andrea, Andreas Maurer, Roberta Piermartini and Robert Teh (Economic Research and Statistics Division), and Antonia Carzaniga. Other authors are Marc Auboin, Eddy Bekkers, John Hancock, Kathryn Lundquist, José-Antonio Monteiro, Coleman Nee, Victor Stolzenburg, Ankai Xu and Qing Ye (Economic Research and Statistics Division); Pamela Apaza, Markus Jelitto, Joscelyn Magdeleine, Juan Marchetti, Martin Roy and Lee Tuthill (Trade in Services and Investment Division); and Rainer Lanz (Development Division).
Un monde de possibilités … et de défis
D’après une étude publiée par le Parlement européen en 2017, la chaîne de blocs pourrait « changer nos vies » (Boucher, 2017). Ce que montrent les différentes applications de la chaîne de blocs qui sont mises au point dans des domaines aussi divers que le financement du commerce, la facilitation des échanges, le commerce des services, la propriété intellectuelle et les marchés publics, c’est que la chaîne de blocs peut avoir un impact considérable sur les opérateurs commerciaux et sur les organismes gouvernementaux participant au commerce international. Les possibilités sont multiples, mais elles ne seront réalisées que si plusieurs défis clés sont relevés.
Foreword
Fifteen years ago, 28 WTO members and acceding members overcame numerous political and technical obstacles, and agreed to work together for the expansion of trade in information technology (IT) products through the Information Technology Agreement (ITA). This landmark agreement demonstrates not only that developed and developing countries can work together in a mutually beneficial manner, but also that the WTO could serve as an effective forum to promote trade opening beyond what was achieved during the Uruguay Round.
Social protection in labour markets exposed to external shocks
Social protection refers to publicly provided safety nets of two kinds. The first type is poverty alleviation measures which help people who are born poor or who lack the productive assets or skills to get out of poverty. The second type consists of social insurance programmes or other labour market interventions that allow people to deal with labour market risk. The focus of this chapter is on the social protection systems of the latter type which protect individuals against the negative consequences of labour market changes caused by external shocks.
Les normes dans le système commercial multilatéral
La présente section traite des textes juridiques et de la jurisprudence de l’OMC qui concernent les normes. Elle commence par un examen des textes eux-mêmes, suivi d’un exposé détaillé de quelques-uns des concepts essentiels relatifs aux normes qui figurent dans l’Accord OTC et l’Accord SPS ainsi que dans le GATT de 1994. Ces accords sont ensuite placés dans le contexte de l’analyse économique présentée dans les sections précédentes, et l’on se réfère aussi à la jurisprudence qui s’est accumulée au sujet des normes. Comme le sujet concerne les normes de produits, on n’examinera que les textes juridiques et la jurisprudence de l’OMC qui se rapportent aux «marchandises». Il importe de noter que l’Accord général sur le commerce des services (AGCS) contient aussi des] dispositions relatives aux normes pour les services, notamment aux paragraphes 4 et 5 de l’article VI.
Respuestas de política para aumentar los beneficios que las mujeres obtienen del comercio
En el presente capítulo se examinan las iniciativas relacionadas con el comercio y el empoderamiento económico de las mujeres que llevan a cabo los Gobiernos, la sociedad civil, el sector privado y las instituciones multilaterales. Se da prioridad a las medidas que podrían ser más eficaces para abrir los mercados a las mujeres y reforzar su capacidad comercial. También se señalan los riesgos que plantea el comercio para las mujeres trabajadoras y se proponen políticas para mitigarlos. El capítulo concluye con un examen de las iniciativas emprendidas por el Banco Mundial y la OMC para abordar la cuestión del comercio y el género.
The macroeconomic implications of WTO accession
This chapter proposes a holistic framework by which acceding governments may evaluate the macroeconomic impact of joining the WTO. Because both acceding governments and WTO members are interested in preserving their own systemic stability and the stability of the multilateral trading system, evaluation of the Accession Package can be achieved by examining its impact on the domestic and external stability of the acceding country. The chapter concludes that, in the long run, the impact should be positive, and should be driven by better resource allocation as the acceding economy opens to international trade, makes deep structural reforms and aligns its institutions and policies with internationally recognised standards. However, in the short term, implementation of WTO commitments may lead to substantial adjustment costs in the public and private sectors. Overall, the design and implementation of WTO accession commitments is a matter of public policy that should aim to promote systemic stability and accelerate domestic reform, while addressing transitional costs.
The globalization of supply chains – policy challenges for developing countries
Global Value Chains (GVCs) represent the dominant form of cross-border economic organization for the production and delivery of goods and services, and developing countries have to deal with them to maintain and enhance their participation in the global economy. While GVCs are the product of the significant changes that have taken place in the global economy over the last three decades and market forces largely determine their scope and direction, governments still have an important role to play in influencing the nature and terms of participation of their firms. The ongoing expansion of trade in services has added a significant new dimension to GVCs and offers another avenue for developing countries to grow their economies. This paper looks at policy challenges and opportunities that global and regional value chains raise for developing countries and argues that proactive policy measures can improve outcomes for these countries. However, GVCs pose particular problems for small, poor countries with weak governance structures to maintain and improve their participation in the global trading system. GVCs require a robust multilateral rule-making process in order to enhance their economic and political sustainability.
Offshoring services: Recent developments and prospects
Despite the recovery in the world economy in 2003 and 2004, unemployment remained high in many industrial countries. Even in those countries which reported a strong recovery, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, employment levels recovered only moderately, leading many observers to wonder about a “jobless recovery”. Although employment growth typically lags behind in each cyclical output recovery, sluggishness in services sector employment seemed to be a new development. In previous downturns, the services sector continued to generate new jobs. The information communications technology (ICT) sector – one of the most dynamic sources of new employment in the 1990s – not only slowed down in terms of job growth, but actually experienced a decline in the payroll after the ICT crash in 2000-01. Many dot.com companies and telecom firms closed down or had to downsize as investment outlays in IT hardware and software decreased in OECD countries.
Global value chains and employment in developing economies
The emergence of global value chains – whereby goods that used to be produced within one country are now fragmented and distributed across global networks of production – has offered developing countries new opportunities to integrate into the global economy. This has also had fundamental impacts for workers in developing countries. The chapter shows that higher earnings and employment within sectors and firms is associated with GVC integration, which also supports other spillovers that operate through labor markets. But it has also had distributional implications of where jobs go and the types of jobs they are. Jobs growth has occurred directly in the export sector, as well as indirectly through linkages of exporting firms to domestic, input-supplying firms. Employment creation and wage gains have been biased towards more skilled workers in developing countries, which contrasts with the predictions of trade theory. The skill-biased nature of GVC trade is associated with increased complexity of global supply chains as well as increased use of skill-intensive inputs, notably services. New emerging trends, including automation and digitization, may further determine how employment in developing countries will be affected by GVC trade in the future. The findings point to education as well as trade and labor policies as important factors for strengthening the GVC-labor relationship.
La economía cuantitativa en el sistema de solución de diferencias de la omc
El sistema de solución de diferencias de la OMC sigue siendo objeto de gran atención, tanto de los profesionales del comercio como de los académicos. Como cabía esperarlo, la mayor parte de esos análisis es de carácter jurídico y se refiere a los diversos argumentos planteados por las partes en las diferencias y los fundamentos jurídicos en que se basan las decisiones. Aunque las cuestiones jurídicas y procesales siguen siendo materia propia de los abogados comercialistas, se recurre cada vez más a los economistas sobre cuestiones que requieren cuantificación o interpretación económica. Esto no puede causar sorpresa, puesto que las normas comerciales multilaterales corresponden a principios económicos fundamentales, como el de la ventaja comparativa, y muchas de las disposiciones de los Acuerdos de la OMC que tienen importancia para la solución de las diferencias se basan en fundamentos económicos. También puede guardar relación con el hecho de que es cada vez mayor el número de las diferencias que llegan a la etapa de la aplicación de las resoluciones, en que los árbitros necesitan cuantificar el nivel admisible de retorsión, como se explicará más adelante.
Geographical Indications in the Accessions Landscape
Geographical indications are signs used to identify the origin of goods characterized by a given quality or reputation that is essentially linked to their geographical origin. They preserve traditional knowledge, foster the growth of local production and satisfy the needs of increasingly quality-conscious and demanding global consumers. Governments acceding to the World Trade Organization (WTO) have reformed their rules on geographical indications in order to achieve WTO consistency. In doing so, they have added value to the multilateral trading system by clarifying the scope of WTO obligations in the field of geographical indications in the following ways: minimum standards of protection; requirements for application to geographical indication protection; the relationship between geographical indications and trademarks; and the scope of substantive provisions with regard to geographical indications. This heightened understanding of the regulation of geographical indications has set new standards in the multilateral trading system. Acceding economies have followed international best practices and sometimes gone a step further by undertaking commitments that exceed those in effect among incumbent WTO members. Rule-making on geographical indications has also helped to prevent disputes on related issues. The lessons learned in the WTO accession process can serve other developing countries and emerging economies to unravel the legal and economic potential of geographical indications.
Competition Policy in WTO Accessions: Filling in the Blanks in the International Trading System
Important synergies and complementarities exist between trade liberalization initiatives and the application of measures to suppress anti-competitive practices or arrangements. Both anti-competitive practices of firms and state-orchestrated arrangements that restrict competition can undermine the gains from trade in myriad ways. Moreover, trade liberalization can be a powerful tool for addressing competition policy concerns. Whether there is a need to develop for more explicit linkages between national competition policies and the multilateral trading system remains an unresolved question in debates surrounding the future of the World Trade Organization (WTO). The role of competition policy is, however, increasingly being addressed by working parties during the accessions of new WTO members. This chapter finds that, in a vast majority of accessions, the acceding economy is requested to provide information on its domestic competition policy regime. In approximately 80 per cent of all accessions, the acceding parties have made notifications on aspects such as the objectives of the regime, its enforcement mechanisms by relevant agencies, as well as on work under way to put in place an effective competition regime where one is not already extant. This, in itself, shows a clear recognition and acceptance by WTO members of the importance of competition policy as a tool of economic integration. The complementarity between WTO law and competition policy, however, is broader than what is reflected in notifications and observations regarding competition legislation per se. Consequently, the analysis in this chapter also presents an in-depth study of the wider impact of competition in the WTO accession process, taking into account the information provided on aspects of the domestic regime dealing with state monopolies and the treatment of state-owned enterprises (SOEs).
Politique d'innovation, commerce et défi numérique
La présente section porte sur la politique en matière d'innovation et traite des raisons qui la justifient d'un point de vue économique ainsi que de son impact concret. Pour qu'il y ait innovation, il faut que de nouvelles connaissances soient créées grâce à l'investissement dans la recherche, puis diffusées par le système éducatif ou les publications, les brevets et l'échange d'idées. Lorsque des entreprises ou des pouvoirs publics soutiennent le progrès technologique en utilisant ces connaissances ou leur présence dans des inventions pour changer des processus, des comportements ou des technologies, la croissance économique peut être affectée en fonction de plusieurs paramètres. Dans tous les pays, la diffusion des nouvelles technologies dépend des institutions, du niveau d'ouverture économique ainsi que de l'investissement dans l'éducation et la recherche.
Partial equilibrium trade policy analysis with structural gravity
Despite solid theoretical foundations and remarkable empirical success, the empirical gravity equation is still often applied a-theoretically and without account for important estimation challenges that may lead to biased and even inconsistent gravity estimates. The objective of this chapter is to serve as a practical guide for estimating the effects of trade policies (and other determinants of bilateral trade) with the structural gravity model.
Introduction
A comprehensive review of the literature on global value chains (GVCs) is an ambitious undertaking for at least three reasons. First, the literature is voluminous and the risk of omitting key references is high. Second, the proper study of GVCs requires a multidisciplinary approach, with literature originating from a wide variety of disciplines. This requires an understanding of different intellectual and conceptual approaches. Third, with such a high level of interest in GVCs, the field is a moving target, and new work in the next months and years will warrant an update.
Recent trends in international trade
The world economy grew at 4 per cent in 2004, the strongest annual growth rate in more than a decade. Global GDP last year was also more broadly based regionally than in the three preceding years, providing a solid basis for an acceleration in world trade growth. World merchandise trade rose by 9 per cent in real terms in 2004, the best annual performance since 2000, and more than twice as fast as world output (GDP measured at market rates) in 2004. Trade growth in 2004 also significantly exceeded average trade growth recorded over the last decade.
Introduction
Gone are the days when trade policy decisions were settled by one or two government ministries and conveyed with little ceremony to parliament and the public. Evolving views and practices on participatory decision-making, along with a policy-making environment that continues to grow in complexity, have changed the manner in which national trade policy is formulated. The number of governmental authorities and agencies implicated in national trade policy dialogues has multiplied, and so too has the number and diversity of non-state actors (NSAs) laying claim to a say in policy deliberations.1 This array of parties, including both business and civil society organizations (CSOs), will frequently be pulling governments in different directions. They will also make greater efforts in some policy contexts than others.
The Doha Development Agenda
An underlying objective of the WTO is to promote economic development through effective participation in world trade. Three aspects of the WTO’s structure and rules are relevant to the question of how developing countries can derive greater benefits from participation in the trading system. First, the rules themselves, together with permitted exceptions and interpretations, are the foundation of the system and play a key part in determining the conditions and opportunities of trade. Second, there is the question of the coverage of the system. No examples exist of topics that the WTO has taken up and then discarded, so this is about the inclusion of new areas. Third, the pattern of protection facing a country’s exports also goes a long way in defining trading conditions and opportunities. In short, the nature of WTO rules, the reach of these rules, and conditions of market access are the three major areas that determine the quality and utility of the WTO for its Members. Not surprisingly, each of these three elements features prominently in the Doha Development Agenda.
Foreword
Any discussion today of international trade and investment policy that fails to acknowledge the centrality of global value chains (GVCs) would be considered outmoded and of questionable relevance. The idiom might vary – referring to trade in value-added, production sharing, supply chains, outsourcing, offshoring, vertical integration, or fragmented production instead of GVCs – but the core notion of internationally joined-up production is the same. Every international agency dealing with economic affairs as well as many governments are working on various aspects of GVCs in order to understand better their various dimensions. The central concern from this quarter, of course, is what GVCs mean for trade policy and for international cooperation in trade-related matters.
The role of international cooperation in building economic resilience
As responses to the 2008-09 global financial crisis and the COVID-19 pandemic have shown, lack of cooperation among governments can create significant tensions and lead to suboptimal outcomes. In contrast, governments benefit from acting cooperatively to enhance their resilience, whether they are preparing for future disruptions, coping with shocks or stimulating the recovery. International cooperation in the trade area can play an important role in building economic resilience to shocks by leveraging synergies and supporting a more open, diversified, inclusive and predictable trade environment.
Labour Market Policy Responses Amid Globalization: The Case of South Africa
The South African economy is one mired in a long-run, low-level growth trap, which has entrenched high levels of structural unemployment. Further, and as is the case with many middle-income economies, it has struggled with the domestic consequences emanating from a variety of exogenous economic shocks. Nowhere is this more apparent than in the case of contagion effects from the 2008 global crisis and trade-induced shocks – within a world economy that is increasingly defined by its interconnectedness. For South Africa, the real economic impact has been most powerfully felt in the labour market, with current and future employment threatened through these shocks. Thus, the combination of high levels of structural unemployment and the adverse labour market effects associated with exposure to global shocks has necessitated the design of appropriate and effective labour market responses.
Remerciements
Le Rapport sur le commerce mondial 2008 a été rédigé sous la supervision d’Alejandro Jara, Directeur général adjoint. Patrick Low, Directeur de la Division de la recherche économique et des statistiques, a dirigé l’équipe chargée de la rédaction. Les principaux auteurs du rapport sont Marc Bacchetta, Chad Bown, K. Michael Finger, Marion Jansen, Alexander Keck, Roberta Piermartini, Michele Ruta et Robert Teh. Les statistiques commerciales ont été fournies par les statisticiens de la Division de la recherche économique et des statistiques, dont les travaux ont été coordonnés par Hubert Escaith, Julia de Verteuil, Andreas Maurer et Jürgen Richtering.
How have production networks changed development strategies in East Asia?
Production networks in East Asia, a result of “the second unbundling”, are currently the most advanced in the world, particularly in machinery industries A new type of international division of labour has fundamentally changed the development strategies of less developed countries (LDCs) as well as developed countries’ (DCs) approach to LDCs.
The trade situation in 2008-09
Signs of a sharp deterioration in the global economy were evident in the second half of 2008 and the first few months of 2009 as world trade flows sagged and production slumped, first in developed economies and then in developing countries. Although world trade grew by 2 per cent in volume terms over the course of 2008, it tapered off in the last six months of the year and was well down on the 6 per cent volume increase posted in 2007. World output measured by real gross domestic product (GDP) also slowed appreciably, falling to 1.7 per cent in 2008 from 3.5 per cent a year earlier.
Définir les politiques publiques axées sur linnovation et leur évolution à lère du numérique
Depuis la crise financière de 2008-2009, lemploi industriel dans certaines économies a diminué et la concurrence internationale dans les secteurs industriels matures sest resserrée ; lévolution de la productivité et des salaires a ralenti et une nouvelle économie reposant sur les technologies numériques est apparue. Dans ce contexte, les politiques industrielles et les politiques en matière dinnovation ont fait lobjet dun renouveau, et ces « nouvelles politiques industrielles » témoignent dune dualité inhérente à toutes les phases de la politique publique, dans la mesure où elles visent à accompagner la difficile modernisation des industries traditionnelles, tout en permettant aux économies de sadapter à la numérisation.
Foreword
The World Trade Report 2006 is the fourth in a series launched in 2002. As in previous years, the present Report has taken up a current issue in trade policy. This year we have looked at subsidies. The contribution we hope to make with these Reports is to aid understanding of complex trade policy issues facing governments. This is not intended primarily as a prescriptive Report, but rather as an invitation to deeper reflection, and it is aimed not just at policy-makers but also the public they represent and the individuals and organizations that actively seek to influence government policies. In addition to the core topic, the Report also takes a brief look at recent developments in trade and discusses some salient features of recent trade developments or a particular aspect of trade. This year, the Report looks briefly at trade in textiles and clothing, flows of international receipts and payments of royalties and license fees, trends in the trade of least-developed countries, and the impact of natural disasters and terrorist acts on international trade flows.
Acknowledgements
This volume has been produced under the WTO Chairs Programme (WCP), a WTO capacity-building programme launched upon the initiative of Hakim Ben Hammouda and Patrick Low in 2010. The WCP is jointly managed by the WTO’s Institute for Training and Technical Cooperation and Economic Research and Statistics Division under the direction of Bridget Chilala and Robert Teh, respectively. The editors thank Fatima Chaudhri and Gerardo Thielen for their contribution to the initial stages of this book project and Clémence Gros for editorial assistance. Anthony Martin and Helen Swain are thanked for managing the production process of the volume.
Gender Welfare Effects of Regional Trade Integration on Households in Ghana
Over the past two to three decades, a number of developing countries have pursued regional economic integration to harmonize trade policies and increase their weight in global trade. Economic integration, particularly in Africa, has also been seen as a way to diversify the structure of African economies, boost intra-African trade and investment, build supply capacity, and sustainably reduce poverty (Osakwe, 2015). These integration efforts have resulted in the creation of regional blocs such as the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU), Common Market for East and Southern Africa (COMESA), Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS), Central African Economic and Monetary Community (CEMAC), Southern African Customs Union (SACU), and Arab Maghreb Union (AMU). The trade-related objectives of these blocs include the establishment of custom unions, with a common external tariff (CET) as a major trade policy instrument.
WTO accessions: A market access perspective on growth – the approach of the European Union
A strong multilateral trading system is vital to developing countries’ longterm interests both for its rulebook and for the market access that it guarantees in all key markets. Markets are increasingly located in developing countries. Indeed, for the first time in recent history, South–South trade outweighs North–South trade, even though barriers to South–South trade are much more significant than those to developed countries’ markets. Through their WTO accession, acceding economies can reap the benefits of more and better access to most world markets – that of the European Union being among the biggest.
Avant-propos
À lère numérique, un nombre croissant de gouvernements a adopté des politiques visant à stimuler la croissance grâce à linnovation et à la modernisation technologique. Les conséquences économiques intérieures liées à la pandémie de COVID-19 conduit les pays à renforcer ces politiques. Le présent rapport examine ces tendances ainsi que le rôle que peuvent jouer le commerce et lOMC. Il montre que la coopération internationale a un rôle important à jouer pour aider les pays à atteindre ces objectifs plus efficacement, tout en limitant autant que possible les retombées négatives des politiques nationales.
Introduction
The world is continually changing, driven by technological innovations that affect the way we live and do business. The history of the world economy is intimately linked to technological progress. The invention of the steam engine mechanized production, the discovery of electricity enabled mass production, and the rise of the internet made it possible to coordinate various production stages at a distance, leading to a fragmentation of production that gave rise to global value chains.
The Policy to Mitigate the Effects of the 2008 Global Crisis on Textile, Clothing, Leather and Footwear Jobs in Morocco
This chapter aims to analyse the short episode of labour market adjustment policy in Morocco, adopted as a response to the global crisis of 2008 by the Moroccan Government. It focuses on the rationale, implementation and effects of this policy on the resilience of firms, employment and workers in the textile, clothing, leather and footwear (TCLF) sector.
Subsidies and the WTO
We have discussed the economic arguments for and against different kinds of subsidization earlier in the Report. Economic analysis tells us that market failures of various kinds can sometimes be addressed efficiently with subsidies. It also tells us that subsidies can distort trade flows if they give an artificial competitive advantage to exporters or import-competing industries. Whether a subsidy is viewed as a desirable intervention for correcting a market failure or as an undesirable trade distortion depends sometimes upon who is making the judgement. But economic analysis ought to be able to help, both in determining the desirability of an intervention from a welfare perspective, and in assessing the merits of alternative forms of intervention. Governments may, however, decide to grant certain kinds of subsidies that have little to do with efficiency considerations, and in such cases economic analysis based on a simple welfare analysis may be of limited use. Also in these cases, the analysis is probably most helpful in ensuring that policy-makers are aware of the costs of pursuing particular objectives and of alternative, lesser-cost ways of doing so. We also know that judgements about what to subsidize, by how much and for how long are complex technical questions on which governments frequently lack adequate information.
Remerciements
Le Rapport sur le commerce mondial 2010 a été rédigé sous la direction générale d’Alejandro Jara, Directeur général adjoint, et sous la supervision de Patrick Low, Directeur de la Division de la recherche économique et des statistiques. Les principaux auteurs du Rapport sont Marc Bacchetta, Cosimo Beverelli, John Hancock, Alexander Keck, Gaurav Nayyar, Coleman Nee, Roberta Piermartini, Nadia Rocha, Michele Ruta, Robert Teh et Alan Yanovich. D’autres contributions écrites ont été fournies par Marc Auboin, Mireille Cossy et James Windon. Les statistiques commerciales ont été fournies par les statisticiens de la Division de la recherche économique et des statistiques, dont les travaux ont été coordonnés par Hubert Escaith, Julia de Verteuil, Andreas Maurer et Jurgen Richtering.
Tendencias recientes en el comercio internacional
En 2005 la economía mundial creció el 3,3 por ciento, menos que en 2004, pero ligeramente por encima del promedio del último decenio. El crecimiento económico siguió siendo fuerte en la mayoría de las regiones, aunque no tan intenso como el año anterior. Sólo la economía europea siguió registrando un bajo crecimiento del PIB, menos de la mitad del registrado en América del Norte. A diferencia de Europa en el Japón se experimentó un fortalecimiento de la actividad económica. Debido a la disminución del crecimiento económico a escala mundial y a la evolución del mercado del petróleo, el crecimiento del comercio de mercancías -al igual que el del PIB- se desaceleró en términos reales, aunque siguió siendo superior al promedio del último decenio.
Sanitary and phytosanitary measures: Trends in accession plurilateral negotiations
Since 1947, effective levels of average tariff protection have declined, as regulatory protectionism – behind the border – has risen. To a large extent, the greater gains from continued trade opening lie in the area of procompetitive domestic regulatory reform, codified in duly enacted legislation with associated implementing regulations. In the practice of WTO accession negotiations, specific obligations have focused more on regulatory areas of the foreign trade regime. The evidence from thirty-three deposited Accession Protocols shows that there have been ninety-three specific obligations undertaken on sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures. Pursuant to WTO Accession Protocols, these are now integral to the Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization (WTO Agreement). The quantum of citation in WTO jurisprudence in the area of SPS is considerable: since 1995, 42 out of 494 WTO dispute settlement cases have cited the WTO Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures in the request for consultations. This chapter examines the evolution of accession results on SPS from 1995 to 2015, and their contributions to the enhancement of the existing WTO legal and policy framework on SPS. Specifically, this chapter focuses on the increasing importance of SPS regulatory issues in the foreign trade regimes of WTO members, the substance of specific SPS obligations undertaken by Article XII members and their relationship to the WTO Agreement, and the core questions that have emerged on the SPS accession treaty dialogue in the context of customs union agreements. As demonstrated in this chapter, SPS accession commitments undertaken by thirty-three Article XII WTO members have exercised a significant influence on WTO jurisprudence. To a large extent, this has further clarified and strengthened WTO law.
Cohérence
La présente étude part d’un constat: des mesures de libéralisation des échanges élaborées et programmées de façon appropriée, conjuguées à un ensemble bien conçu de règles commerciales, peuvent apporter une contribution positive à la croissance et au développement. Toutefois, l’importance de cette contribution dépend aussi des autres politiques mises en oeuvre. La notion de cohérence a été utilisée dans la présente étude pour caractériser une situation dans laquelle ces politiques vont dans le même sens. Dans un monde où les objectifs et les priorités des politiques suivies sont multiples et où il n’existe aucun consensus sur un ensemble de mesures idéal, il est impossible de donner une précision opérationnelle à la notion de cohérence – au contraire, cette notion montre qu’en réalité les politiques sont interdépendantes et qu’une politique inadaptée ou une négligence dans un domaine peut compromettre l’efficacité des efforts déployés dans un autre domaine. On ne peut pas donner une définition unique de la cohérence tant qu’un ensemble d’objectifs n’a pas été établi de façon formelle et que ces objectifs n’ont pas été classés selon un ordre de priorité indiquant comment effectuer des compromis si nécessaire. La détermination précise d’un ensemble de mesures entièrement cohérent permettrait aussi de préciser la nature et le moment exacts de toutes les interventions pertinentes des pouvoirs publics. Une telle entreprise déborde largement du cadre de la présente étude. La cohérence, dans notre contexte, se rapporte simplement à l’idée que des approches qui se soutiennent mutuellement dans des domaines connexes produiront probablement une plus grande harmonie entre les intentions et les résultats. La cohérence examinée ici est une question de degré, et une meilleure cohérence signifie que les avantages découlant de politiques commerciales judicieuses sont plus nombreux que s’il n’existait pas de politiques de soutien dans d’autres domaines.
Uncertainty and risk in global supply chains
Many discussions of supply chain risk begin with graphic depictions of situations where small disruptions lead to a large impact. Sheffi (2005) describes the sequence of events beginning with a lighting strike to a Philips factory in New Mexico that led to the disruption of a generation of cell phones, with Nokia successfully overcoming the disruption through proactive management while Ericsson lost out.
Avant-propos du Directeur général de l’OMC
L’histoire du progrès économique est indissociable du changement économique. C’est une histoire marquée par l’essor et le déclin d’industries entières, avec l’arrivée d’idées nouvelles et d’innovations qui exigent de nouvelles compétences. Ce processus de transformation incessant a façonné l’économie mondiale actuelle, apportant plus de prospérité à des milliards de personnes dans le monde – et faisant de la capacité d’ajustement et d’adaptation un élément essentiel du succès économique. Aujourd’hui, comme hier, les individus, les entreprises et les sociétés s’efforcent de s’adapter à l’évolution rapide des conditions économiques afin de bénéficier des avantages qui en découlent. Ce qui diffère maintenant, c’est la vitesse remarquable à laquelle ces changements se produisent.
Agradecimientos
Las mujeres y el comercio: el papel del comercio en la promoción de la igualdad de género es un informe conjunto del Banco Mundial y de la Organización Mundial del Comercio (OMC). Coordinaron el informe Maria Liungman y Nadia Rocha, del Banco Mundial, y José- Antonio Monteiro y Roberta Piermartini, de la OMC. El equipo agradece la orientación y el apoyo de nuestros colegas del Banco Mundial: Caroline Freund, Directora Mundial, Comercio, Inversión y Competitividad; William Maloney, Economista Jefe para el Crecimiento Equitativo, las Finanzas y las Instituciones; el Grupo sobre Género del Banco Mundial, bajo la dirección de Caren Grown, Directora Global de Género; y Antonio Nucifora, Gerente de Práctica, Unidad de Comercio e Integración Regional; así como de nuestros colegas de la OMC: Aegyoung Jung, Asesora Jurídica Principal del Director General; y Robert Koopman, Economista Jefe y Director de la División de Estudios Económicos y Estadística.
Résumé analytique
Le Rapport sur le commerce mondial 2006 débute par un résumé succinct des principales tendances du commerce international établi sur la base du rapport publié par le Secrétariat en avril. Viennent ensuite de brèves observations analytiques sur certaines questions commerciales d’actualité, qui concernent, cette année, l’évolution récente du commerce des textiles et des vêtements, l’évolution des paiements internationaux au titre des redevances et des droits de licence, l’évolution du commerce des pays les moins avancés et les effets des catastrophes naturelles et des actes de terrorisme sur les courants d’échanges internationaux. Le Rapport 2006 a pour thème central les subventions, et en particulier la façon dont elles sont définies, ce que la théorie économique peut nous apprendre à leur sujet, les raisons pour lesquelles les pouvoirs publics y ont recours, les principaux secteurs dans lesquels elles sont accordées, et le rôle de l’Accord sur l’OMC dans leur réglementation dans le cadre du commerce international.
Acknowledgements
My sincere thanks go to my colleague Ms Kenza Le Mentec for her precious guidance. Kenza introduced me to the subject and provided invaluable inputs, in particular for the technical sections describing the technology and the section on trade facilitation. This publication would not have been possible without her support.
Recent patterns of global production and GVC participation
Taking advantage of a new accounting method to decompose GDP production into pure domestic production, traditional trade, simple and complex GVC activities, this chapter examines recent trends in global value chain (GVC) activities across the world. Our main findings show that the pace of GVC activities picked up in 2017 after a period of slow down since 2012; intra-North American and intra-European GVC activities declined relative to inter-regional transactions due to higher penetration via Factory Asia but value chains still remain largely regional; China is increasingly playing an important role as both a supply and demand hub in traditional trade and simple GVC networks, although the US and Germany are still the most important hubs in complex GVC networks; bilateral trade balances are significantly affected by the supply and demand of third countries; and net imports are no longer a proper measure of the impact of international trade on the domestic economy in the age of GVCs.
Prefacio del Director General
En el Informe sobre el Comercio Mundial 2010 se examina el comercio de recursos naturales, un tema que reviste una importancia creciente en las relaciones comerciales internacionales. Los recursos naturales son la base de una gran parte de la actividad económica, constituyen un componente básico de muchas economías y su participación en el comercio mundial es cada vez mayor. Una serie de características singulares de los recursos naturales explican la razón por la que ocupan un lugar especial en el análisis de la economía, de la economía política y de las políticas.
Impact of informality on trade and growth
The effects of a large informal economy on a country’s capacity to engage in international trade have not yet been the subject of extensive empirical research. Several case studies of experiences in individual countries show diverging results or, at the very least, allow a contradictory reading of the evidence. Nevertheless, the impact of informality on certain proximate causes for trade and growth has been analysed both theoretically and empirically.
Accession Protocols as building blocks
This book provides multiple perspectives on the process and results from WTO accession negotiations. The perspectives reflected are those of economists, lawyers, academics, chief negotiators of selected original WTO members and Article XII members, chairpersons of WTO accession working parties, professionals from the multilateral institutions of the WTO, World Bank, International Monetary Fund and International Trade Centre. Analysis is combined with ‘stories’, enriched by anecdotes. The detailing of the facts of trade policy drudgery is accompanied by explanatory narratives that bring the situations to life. In many ways, what will strike the reader is that this is a unique book of high value that has emerged from a system that has yielded higher levels of transparency, albeit grudgingly and only when pressed.
A reflection on accessions as the WTO turns twenty
As the WTO celebrates its twentieth year, it is appropriate to ask what WTO accessions have contributed to the rules-based multilateral trading system. What demands have been made by the original and incumbent WTO members on acceding governments? How have the acceding governments fared? This chapter finds that WTO accessions have expanded the reach of the trading system, not only geographically but conceptually, by clarifying disciplines and pointing the way to their further strengthening in future negotiations. Members who have acceded under Article XII of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade now account for 20 per wto_cent of total membership of the WTO. Meanwhile, with globalisation, the increased prevalence, complexity and capillarity of international exchange has greatly increased the need for a universal system of trade rules. Crucially, accession negotiations have been used by governments as an instrument for wide-ranging domestic reforms, including by means of far-reaching new legislation that has effectively changed the business landscape. In several instances, the WTO accession negotiating platform has been used for the much broader purpose of facilitating new, closer, geopolitical relationships. As the negotiating arm of the WTO continuously adapts, the success of accession negotiations also points to the opportunities inherent in variable negotiating configurations, such as plurilaterals around specific issues. There is also considerable scope for improving the process of accession negotiations to ensure greater transparency, streamlining and fairness.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to extend their thanks to David Cheong, Emmanuel Milet, Angélica Muñoz Marmolejo and Olga Striestka-Ilina for contributing to the research process. Thanks also go to the two anonymous referees for their helpful comments, and to colleagues who contributed substantial comments on the text, including Tatiana Prazeres, Johanna Silvander and Olga Striestka-Ilina.
Agradecimientos y Descargo de responsabilidad
El Informe sobre el comercio mundial 2018 ha sido elaborado bajo la responsabilidad general de Xiaozhun Yi, Director General Adjunto de la OMC, y Robert Koopman, Director de la División de Estudios Económicos y Estadística. El informe de este año ha sido coordinado por Cosimo Beverelli y Emmanuelle Ganne. Los autores del informe son Marc Bacchetta, Eddy Bekkers, Cosimo Beverelli, Emmanuelle Ganne, John Hancock, Mark Koulen, Andreas Maurer, José-Antonio Monteiro, Coleman Nee, Roberta Piermartini, Stela Rubinova, Viktor Stolzenburg, Robert Teh y Ankai Xu (División de Estudios Económicos y Estadística).
La cooperación internacional en materia de políticas de innovación en la era digital
Las políticas nacionales de innovación, como otras políticas gubernamentales, atienden a objetivos de política interna. Como se ha analizado en la sección C, pueden generar efectos indirectos positivos y negativos a nivel internacional, y algunos de los mecanismos por cuyo intermedio generan estos efectos tienen que ver con el comercio. La presente sección se centra en la cooperación encaminada a abordar los efectos indirectos relacionados con el comercio que las políticas de innovación generan a nivel internacional. Una cooperación de este tipo podría contribuir a asegurar que los Gobiernos dispongan de margen de actuación para aplicar políticas de innovación, así como a aprovechar al máximo los efectos indirectos positivos de esas políticas a nivel internacional, al tiempo que reducen al mínimo sus efectos negativos en los interlocutores comerciales.
Can developing countries use SPS standards to gain access to markets? The case of Mercosur
The role of sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) standards in agri-business has changed over the past decade, from being a technical instrument to avoid the use of food safety, animal and plant health measures for protectionist purposes to being a competitive instrument in differentiated product markets (Reardon et al., 2001). The change from mass markets to differentiated and niche markets for consumers with higher purchasing power triggered this shift towards SPS measures as a strategic tool for developing and differentiating markets, gaining market access, coordinating the quality and safety of the food system and defining market niches for those products. On the demand side, high-income consumers with varied and sophisticated tastes have buttressed this change and, on the supply side, so have production, processing and distribution technologies that allow for product differentiation and market extension and segmentation (Reardon et al., 2001).
Remerciements
Les femmes et le commerce: Le rôle du commerce dans la promotion de l’égalité hommes-femmes est un rapport conjoint de la Banque mondiale et de l’Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC). La publication a été coordonnée par Maria Liungman et Nadia Rocha de la Banque mondiale et José-Antonio Monteiro et Roberta Piermartini de l’OMC. L’équipe tient à remercier pour leurs conseils et leur soutien les collègues de la Banque mondiale Caroline Freund (Directrice principale, Commerce, investissement et compétitivité), William Maloney (Économiste en chef, Croissance équitable, finance et institutions), le Groupe Égalité hommes-femmes mené par Caren Grown (Directrice principale), et Antonio Nucifora (Responsable, Unité Commerce et intégration régionale), ainsi que les collègues de l’OMC Aegyoung Jung (Conseillère juridique principale du Directeur général) et Robert Koopman (Économiste en chef et Directeur, Division de la recherche économique et des statistiques).
Literature Review
Globalization is the integration of goods, services, financial and capital markets on a world scale. From the perspective of firms, this integration means having access to broader markets but also facing tougher competition. In order to remain competitive in global markets, firms have to adjust by engaging in innovation, developing new products and adopting new technologies. They must also adjust by adapting their workforce to the new competitive environment. Such adjustment is costly, however, and workers bear a large share of the cost of adjustment to globalization. In this context, what are the responses policy-makers can offer to mitigate those costs and make globalization more inclusive? This chapter reviews the literature on adjustment policies with a view to answering this question.
Supply chains and sustainability
The concepts of “supply chains” and “sustainability” are highly compatible in their shared recognition of a network-centric reality and the resulting interpretations of system dynamics. Furthermore, the aggregate flows across global supply chains are significant – and increasingly so – for considerations on social, environmental, and economic sustainability. A plethora of theories have developed in this overlap between supply chains and sustainability, including sustainable supply chain management (SSCM), green supply chain management (GrSCM), and close-loop supply chains. These theories and their basic definitions and history will be reviewed in this chapter. While theoretical development has been distinguished in its intensity and productivity over a short period of time, progress is still needed in translating theory into application for the business practitioner. To this end, empirical case studies are needed to showcase best practices and guide the development of prescriptive tools.
The implications of using value-added trade data for applied trade policy analysis
Recent efforts to examine trade data from a value-added perspective, and linking that work to global value and supply chains, has largely been driven by the recognition that traditional data on imports and exports may be masking the increasingly crossborder nature of global production networks. In this paper we examine how using new data sets on value-added trade in two traditional empirical models, a trade-based computable general equilibrium model and an econometric estimation of exchange rate pass through, generate new and useful insights. Our results suggest that the new data sets could improve empirical information used to support policy making.
Introducción
su diseño, su tamaño, su peso, su inocuidad, su comportamiento energético y ambiental, su interoperabilidad, el material de que está fabricado e incluso su proceso de producción. Pueden establecerse normas, por ejemplo, sobre las dimensiones de los contenedores de carga y de los filetes de rosca; el comportamiento, desde el punto de vista de la seguridad, de los cinturones para asientos, los cojines de aire y el instrumental médico; la pasteurización de la leche; y los protocolos que permiten a los ordenadores de diferentes proveedores conectarse entre sí.
Conclusion
Dans le présent rapport, on a montré qu’il était important de distinguer les normes selon leur fonction. Le cadre théorique qui a été adopté fait la distinction entre les normes relatives aux externalités de réseau, à l’information imparfaite et aux externalités négatives liées à la production ou à la consommation.
Avant-propos du Directeur général de l’OMC
Le commerce et la technologie sont étroitement liés. De l’invention de la roue au chemin de fer et à l’avènement de la conteneurisation, la technologie a toujours joué un rôle clé en façonnant notre manière de faire du commerce et ce phénomène s’accélère comme jamais auparavant. Nous vivons une période de changement technologique sans précédent, et les diverses innovations basées sur Internet pourraient avoir un impact majeur. Par exemple, l’Internet des objets, l’intelligence artificielle, l’impression 3D et la chaîne de blocs pourraient transformer profondément ce qui est échangé, par qui et comment.
Can SMEs participate in global production networks?
This paper examines factors influencing the participation of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) economies in global production networks. SMEs – which are seen as the backbone of employment and poverty reduction in ASEAN economies – have returned to the spotlight with expanding global production networks in East Asia. Greater SME participation in global production networks through closer linkages with multinational corporations (MNCs) and direct exports can be a potent means of accelerating technology transfer, spillovers and economic development (Hobday, 2001; Lim and Kimura, 2010). Facing a fragile world growth outlook, the ASEAN and East Asia Summits in 2011 have emphasized SMEs as a vehicle for increasing intra-regional trade, rebalancing towards domestic and regional demand and inclusive growth in Asia.
The role of trade and trade policy in the development process
Different aspects of the development process have been emphasized by the many scholars and observers who have ventured into this field. The seminal work of Sen (1999) identifies freedom as both the primary end and principal means of development. The Brundtland Commission stressed that development must involve the care and nurturing of the environment for future generations. Others have focused particularly on poverty reduction and the empowerment of poor people. All these approaches consider economic growth a vital component of the development process, while emphasizing that development is about more than growth.
Quantitative economics in WTO dispute settlement
WTO dispute settlement continues to be the subject of extensive scrutiny by both trade practitioners and academics. Not surprisingly, most of this analysis is legal in nature, touching upon the various arguments that have been put forward by parties to disputes and the legal foundations upon which these disputes are adjudicated. While legal and procedural issues remain the domain of trade lawyers, economists are being called upon with increased frequency on matters that call for economic interpretation or quantification. This should hardly be surprising given that multilateral trade rules reflect key economic principles such as comparative advantage, and that many of the terms in WTO Agreements, which are important in the resolution of disputes, have an economic basis. It may also have to do with the fact that increasing numbers of disputes are reaching the implementation phase, in which arbitrators need to quantify the allowable level of retaliation, as will be further explained below.
WTO rule-making: WTO Accession Protocols and jurisprudence
This chapter examines rule-making in the WTO. It explains the legal provisions governing how rules are made in the WTO, and describes WTO rule-making in practice, including through the adoption of decisions by the Ministerial Conference and the General Council and by way of dispute settlement. The role of consensus and voting in WTO rulemaking are discussed. The chapter also refers to different types of rules and decisions – such as ministerial declarations, authoritative interpretations, amendments and waivers – and considers their legal value and effect, as well as how different types of rules or decisions have been interpreted or applied. Finally, it also includes a look at rule-making in the context of accessions, and considers Accession Protocols and working party reports through the lens of WTO dispute settlement.